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Electronic Journal of the ASA (EJASA) - October 1992
Author: IDC, PKO3-1/27D, Pole 27-C, 223-...
Date: Fri, 02 Oct 1992 17:03
Date: Fri, 02 Oct 1992 17:03
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THE ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF
THE ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF THE ATLANTIC
Volume 4, Number 3 - October 1992
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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* ASA Membership and Article Submission Information
* Soviet Spacecraft Docking Experience - Adam R. Brody
* First International Conference on Optical SETI
- Dr. Stuart A. Kingsley
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ASA MEMBERSHIP INFORMATION
The Electronic Journal of the Astronomical Society of the Atlantic
(EJASA) is published monthly by the Astronomical Society of the
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to the advancement of amateur and professional astronomy and space
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Opinions expressed in the EJASA are those of the authors' and not
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by the Astronomical Society of the Atlantic, Incorporated.
SOVIET SPACECRAFT DOCKING EXPERIENCE
Copyright (c) 1991 by Adam R. Brody
Sterling Software
@ NASA Ames Research Center
Any discussion of spacecraft docking operations would be
incomplete without mention of the accomplishments that the Soviets
have had in this area. In 1991, the Soviets inhabited their eighth
Earth-orbiting space station, named MIR. Through July of 1990, the
Soviets have had thirty-five successful autonomous dockings in space
(Friedman and Heinsheimer, 1990).
Cosmonauts inhabit the MIR space station for many months at a time
and unmanned vehicles automatically dock for resupply. Most of the
information that follows was gleaned from the ALMANAC OF SOVIET MANNED
SPACE FLIGHT, by Dennis Newkirk (1990).
The Soviets began contemplating spacecraft docking operations when
they realized these techniques were necessary for racing the United
States to place the first humans on Earth's Moon in the 1960s. Their
first plan was an Earth orbital rendezvous (EOR) leading to a lunar
fly-by. They were to use the same A-2 boosters and launch facilities
being developed for the VOSKHOD (meaning "Sunrise") program and
unmanned missions. Each mission would involve five launches. SOYUZ
V tankers would automatically rendezvous and dock and then fuel the
SOYUZ B rocket waiting in Earth orbit. The manned SOYUZ (meaning
"Union") would dock with the fueled rocket and then be launched
around the Moon.
By 1964, the Soviets realized they were not developing the docking
techniques fast enough to beat the U.S. to the Moon. They decided to
adopt a direct ascent profile, which involved launching directly from
Earth to the Moon, eliminating the need for docking. After a series of
unmanned failures, ZOND 5B (meaning "Probe") achieved the first lunar
fly-by and return in September of 1968. The spacecraft contained
plants, turtles, flies, and worms.
Some modifications were needed, however: The returning capsule
experienced between ten and sixteen g's (Earth gravities), more than a
human could endure. ZOND 6 performed a similar mission in November of
that year, but with g-forces reduced by one-half. Technical difficulties
delayed the December launch of ZOND 7A (which most likely would have been
manned) by one month, allowing the U.S. the first manned lunar orbital
mission with APOLLO 8 in December of 1968.
The race to the Moon was not without a high cost to both the
Soviets and the Americans. On January 27, 1967, during a launch pad
rehearsal for APOLLO 1, astronauts Virgil I. Grissom, Edward H. White
II, and Roger Chaffee died in a fire which happened aboard their
spacecraft. Cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov plunged to his death when
the SOYUZ 1 parachute shroud lines twisted while returning from Earth
orbit in April of 1967. These accidents delayed both the APOLLO and
SOYUZ manned launches for over one year. "APOLLO 1 and SOYUZ 1 taught
the world that victories in space would be neither easy nor cheap."
(Aldrin and McConnell, 1989, page 172)
In October of 1967, two SOYUZ vehicles, modified after the SOYUZ 1
tragedy, tested and perfected automatic docking operations. KOSMOS
(Cosmos) 188 was launched three days after KOSMOS 186 and completed
a rendezvous on the first revolution. KOSMOS 186 became the active
vehicle and docked with KOSMOS 188, which was cooperatively main-
taining a stable attitude. KOSMOS 186 was the first SOYUZ to have
maneuvered in orbit. This was also the first automatic docking and
the first to be achieved by unmanned vehicles. Six months later, in
April of 1968, KOSMOS 212 and KOSMOS 213 repeated this procedure.
Television cameras transmitted the undocking to ground control. These
vehicles were essentially stripped-down SOYUZ spacecraft and the
procedure they pioneered is similar to what is used today. A brief
description follows.
Radar contact between the two spacecraft is established in the
capture phase. Both vehicles align themselves to a common axis. The
chaser vehicle closes with a range rate of about two meters per second
at 350 meters. This is about six times faster than suggested by NASA's
"0.1 percent rule," which limits approach velocity to no greater than
0.1 percent of the range per second (Sedej and Clarke, 1985; Oberg,
1988).
The target vehicle, such as a space station, then uses attitude
control rockets to maintain orientation in the mooring phase. The
chaser craft extends a probe to effect a soft docking. "The extended
probe prevents the airtight seals of the two spacecraft docking collars
from being damaged if the initial contact is hard or off-center" (New-
kirk, 1990, page J65). The vehicles complete soft docking when small
latches on top of the probe catch the center of the drogue.
"In the docking phase, the active ship reels its probe in and the
ship's butt docking collars make an airtight connection" (Newkirk,
1990, page 66). Latches in both collars hold the spacecraft together
so electrical connections for communication and power may then be
made. With the unmanned PROGRESS supply spacecraft, refueling
connections also are consummated. Springs are used for disengaging.
In October of 1968, Colonel Georgiy Beregovoy attempted docking
maneuvers in SOYUZ 3. This was the first time the Soviets launched
the passive target vehicle, SOYUZ 2, just as the U.S. did in the
GEMINI program two years earlier. An automatic system guided SOYUZ 3
from direct ascent to a range within 180 meters. Television cameras
transmitted the image of the approaching target to the Soviets. This
flight was intended to accomplish the first Soviet manned docking, but
all docking attempts failed (Newkirk, 1990). In one instance, ground
control directed a maneuver calculated from data transmitted by the
rendezvous antennae on each vehicle (Baker, 1982).
"Only 10 weeks after SOYUZ 3,...the shortest gap between non-
related manned space missions to that time" (Clark, 1988, page 50),
the Soviets launched SOYUZ 4. "The launch [sic] of SOYUZ 4 and SOYUZ
5 in January 1969 marked the first winter launch in the Soviet manned
space programme, suggesting that the flights had to be urgently
completed" (Clark, page 51).
Another descendent of the lunar fly-by mission was the first
manned docking in January of 1969 with SOYUZ 5. After practicing
almost eight hundred dockings in the simulator at Star City, cosmonaut
Vladimir Shatalov accomplished an objective of the failed SOYUZ 1
mission, i.e., the first Soviet manned docking. In SOYUZ 4, Shatalov
flew a manual approach to within a few kilometers of SOYUZ 5. He then
activated the automatic system, which reduced the range to one hundred
meters. Shatalov regained control and docked during a live Soviet
television broadcast. This docking set a precedent in that it did not
occur during the first orbit. The Soviets announced the combined
spacecraft "as the world's First Experimental Space Station" (Clark,
page 51). Fellow cosmonauts Yevgeniy Khrunov and Aleksey Yeliseyev
used the opportunity to perform the first transfer from one spacecraft
to another.
The SOYUZ spacecraft was later modified for use as a space station
ferry. SOYUZ 10 and 11 were the only flights with the original SALYUT
ferry. The most important change was the introduction of a crew
transfer system, which precluded the necessity to go EVA (Extra-
Vehicular Activity) to board the station.
The Soviets used Volga trainers to prepare for the docking
operations. The Volga consisted of movable mockups of both SOYUZ and
SALYUT mounted on rails. They would respond to commands made by the
cosmonauts. A television view of the SALYUT was presented to the
SOYUZ model's periscope system to give the crew a simulation of an
actual approach to the space station (Clark, 1988).
While manual control has been relegated to a back-up position for
unmanned supply vehicles, the Soviets have utilized manual control for
manned dockings to space stations. This began with SOYUZ 10, in April
of 1971, which brought the first crew of Vladimir Shatalov, Aleksey
Yeliseyev, and Nikolay Rukavishnikov to SALYUT 1. SALYUT 1 (meaning
"Salute"), humanity's first true space station, was launched in April
of 1971 aboard the Soviet Union's most powerful space launcher, the
PROTON, known in the West as the D-1. SALYUT 1 returned to Earth upon
burning up in the atmosphere in October of the same year.
The SALYUT assisted in the docking maneuver not only by
maintaining attitude control, but "also made four orbit changes to
match orbit with the approaching SOYUZ" (Newkirk, 1990, page 99). At
a range of 180 meters, Shatalov took over control from the automatic
system and performed a manual docking. Problems, most likely with the
SOYUZ, prevented the crew from boarding.
The Soviets and the Americans both advocate manual back-up for
automatic docking maneuvers. However, the Soviets only resort to the
manual system upon failure of the automatic one, while the Americans
tend to use manual control whenever it is available, not just as a
back-up control mode. Such is the case with Space Shuttle (and other
advanced aircraft) landings, where the mere existence of a manual
control capability is cited as a justification for using pilot control
instead of the automated system.
In an October, 1970 meeting in Moscow, the United States and the
Soviets started formulating plans for the APOLLO-SOYUZ Test Project
(ASTP). During a June, 1971 meeting in Houston, Texas, "[Boris]
Petrov expressed the preference of the Soviet Academy of Sciences for
a joint docking flight employing the androgynous docking system"
(Baker, 1982, page J408). This could be accomplished either with a
SOYUZ docking with a SKYLAB/APOLLO or an APOLLO docking with a
SALYUT/SOYUZ. The latter was established as the baseline mission.
In June of 1971, SOYUZ 11 was the next (and last) vehicle to dock
with SALYUT 1. The automated system reduced the range from six
kilometers to 100 meters. Georgi Dobrovolsky then took over control
at a range of 100 meters and a velocity of 0.9 meters per second (m/s)
(This is nine times faster than suggested by the 0.1 percent rule).
By sixty meters, he reduced the range rate to 0.3 m/s. Dobrovolsky
then completed the docking maneuver.
The crew of SOYUZ 11 became the first to inhabit the space
station. After a record twenty-four-day stay in space, the mission
ended in disaster when the air in SOYUZ 11 escaped through an open
valve eleven minutes before the craft entered the atmosphere. Twelve
pyrotechnic devices, used for separation, fired simultaneously rather
than sequentially, releasing a seal on the spacecraft's pressure
equalization valve. The atmosphere escaped in approximately thirty
seconds while the cosmonauts were in the middle of a sixty-second
procedure to close the valve manually. All three men suffocated in
space. Worst of all, the cosmonauts were not wearing their pressure
suits, which was a common procedure during return at the time.
Shatalov consequently replaced General Nikolai Kamanin as head of
the cosmonaut corps. A redesign of the space station was necessary,
but since this would take longer than the SALYUT's lifetime in space
to complete, the station was de-orbited. More than two years passed
before the next manned Soviet mission.
The SOYUZ Ferry was created to bring crews to SALYUT space
stations. It contained an automatic rendezvous and docking system
known as Igla, or "needle". As in earlier SOYUZ docking missions,
both spacecraft maneuvered actively. The SOYUZ Ferry had its first
manned flight, SOYUZ 12, in September of 1973. Since both SALYUT 1
and 2 had failed in the previous year, this flight was able only to
simulate transport to a space station. SALYUT 2 most likely had an
attitude control thruster stuck on and broke up in orbit before it
could be manned.
SOYUZ 13, launched in December of 1973, was an independent mission
and did not dock with a station. SOYUZ 14 was the first operational
use of the ferry and took the only SALYUT 3 crew to orbit in July of
1974. Automated rendezvous was used to reduce the range from one
thousand meters to within one hundred meters. Pavel Popovich then
performed manual docking.
This procedure of manual control takeover at approximately 100
meters continued with Alesksei Gubarev on SOYUZ 17 in January of 1975.
Pyotr Klimuk performed similarly in May of 1975 with SOYUZ 18B.
SOYUZ 19, better know as the APOLLO-SOYUZ Test Project, "was the
first Soviet manned launch ever whose time was announced in advance
and was the first to be televised live" (Newkirk, 1990, page 140).
APOLLO 18 was the active vehicle because of its greater fuel supply.
The SOYUZ merely had to maintain a fixed attitude toward the
approaching APOLLO and match roll rates during the historic docking
in July of 1975.
SOYUZ 20 was a test of the PROGRESS automated cargo transport
system in November of 1975. PROGRESS 1, however, did not fly until
January of 1978. The PROGRESS, based on the SOYUZ, carried twice as
much rendezvous and docking instrumentation as the SOYUZ Ferry. A
second video camera was mounted on the outside to give ground
controllers a stereo view of the automatic docking. "Simultaneous
transmissions of telemetry from PROGRESS to SALYUT and the ground
enabled both the control center and the cosmonauts to assist with
docking if necessary" (Baker, 1982, page 524).
PROGRESS 1 took two days approaching SALYUT 6 as SOYUZ 20 had
done approaching SALYUT 4. Manned spacecraft typically perform the
approach in one day. "Since the PROGRESS was unmanned, the crew did
not retreat to the SOYUZ during the docking as when the SOYUZ 27
docked. They instead manned the station's controls ready to maneuver
away from the approaching PROGRESS in case of a malfunction" (Newkirk,
1990, page 179). Since the PROGRESS was expendable, plume impingement
upon it caused by an emergency SALYUT separation maneuver was not a
concern. None of the PROGRESS missions through May of 1988 had any
docking problems, although there were occasional problems with manned
missions.
The SOYUZ T was the replacement for the SOYUZ Ferry. It "included
a new computer system and was claimed to be more automated than the
earlier SOYUZ variants; however, in flight the cosmonauts often had
to take over manual control when the automatic systems apparently
malfunctioned during docking maneuvers" (Clark, 1988, page 98).
SOYUZ T-1 flew in an unmanned configuration in December of 1979.
In June of 1980, the Argon docking computer flew its maiden launch
on the first manned SOYUZ T flight, SOYUZ T-2. Argon selected which
of several possible approaches to fly to a space station and then flew
it with manual override capability. It similarly controlled descent.
Its operation required that the crew study computer programming. This
training may have saved the mission, as the automated docking system
failed at a range of 180 meters from SALYUT 6. "This was a problem
which would be regularly repeated during SOYUZ-T missions" (Clark,
1988, page 120).
Yuri Malyshev, a rookie cosmonaut, took over control and completed
a successful manual docking. Aleksey Yeliseyev explained that the
crew and flight controllers had not practiced the approach the
computer selected, so the crew decided to take over control to be
better prepared in the event of an emergency. The crew claimed the
automated system would have been successful if given the opportunity
(Newkirk, 1990).
SOYUZ 38, the seventh international crew, was launched in
September of 1980 with the first black cosmonaut, a Cuban. The
automated system controlled not only the rendezvous but also the
docking. The next manned flight, SOYUZ T-3, was launched in November
of 1980. Its Argon automatic docking system performed the docking
maneuver from a range of five kilometers.
The Soviets' MIR (meaning both "World" and "Peace") space station
evolved from earlier SALYUT designs and was launched in February of
1986. The station contains five docking drogues with a manipulator
system that moves incoming modules from the forward port where they
have docked to a side port. The Kurs ("Course") docking system was
incorporated into the forward port. This eliminated the need for
attitude control by the station during the docking maneuver (Newkirk,
1990). Clark (1988) claims the rear port was also outfitted with
the Kurs system in addition to the old Igla system, which would
accommodate PROGRESS freighters.
MIR's first crew was launched March of 1986 on SOYUZ T-15 with
live Soviet television coverage. The Igla system controlled the
approach to within 200 meters of MIR's aft docking port, which was
compatible with SOYUZ T and PROGRESS. Leonid Kizim then flew around
to the forward port, which was instrumented with the new Kurs system
to be used with SOYUZ TM and STAR modules. The SOYUZ was incapable
of automatic docking at the forward port. However, the laser range
finder that was first used on the SOYUZ T-13 flight in June of 1985
aided Kizim. Kizim completed a manual docking from an initial range
of sixty meters.
In May, the crew performed the first station-to-station transfer
by flying over to SALYUT 7 to reactivate it. Again, the hand-held
laser range finder was used to generate range data. The automatic
system was used from five kilometers until Kizim took over manual
control and docked. The crew returned to MIR at the end of June.
After the crew used the Igla rendezvous system to reduce the range
from 200 meters, Kizim took over control at a range of fifty meters
from the rear docking port and maneuvered to dock at the forward port.
The Kurs rendezvous system was demonstrated in May of 1986 with
an unmanned SOYUZ TM-1. This system does not require target vehicle
transponders and can dock with a station at any relative attitude.
It "makes contact with the station at a range of 200 km and docking
lock-on begins at 20 to 30 km distance" (Newkirk, 1990, page 313).
Kurs presents closing rate data from the docking radar to the
cosmonauts.
On March 31, 1987, the KVANT ("Quantum") module, the first to
be sent to MIR, was launched one degree out of plane with MIR in an
approach similar to that of STAR modules. During its approach to MIR
on April 5, the cosmonauts were suited up in the SOYUZ TM in case of
a collision. The spacecraft started its approach at seventeen
kilometers distance using the old Igla docking system. At 500 meters
distance, the KVANT's forward docking camera was activated and the
docking probe extended. When KVANT was only 200 meters from the
station and preparing for final docking maneuvers, Flight Director
Ryumin radioed to the cosmonauts that KVANT had lost its lock-on to
MIR's docking transponders. "[KVANT drifted slightly and] was
rotating slightly as it passed within 10 meters of MIR" (Newkirk,
1990, pages 321-322). "The KVANT thrusters failed to slow down the
module and it flew past MIR" (Clark, 1988, page J155).
Mission controllers spent several days analyzing the problem
during which time the KVANT drifted to a range of 400 kilometers.
Ground controllers brought KVANT back to the vicinity of MIR. The
Igla automatic docking system was activated at a range of twenty-two
kilometers. Lock-on to MIR's docking transponder signal was achieved.
At a range of one thousand meters, the approach velocity was 2.5
meters per second (This is 2.5 times the rate suggested by NASA's 0.1
percent rule). The relative velocity was decreased to 0.32 meters
per second at 26 meters (12.3 times the 0.1 percent rule rate of 0.026
meters per second). Soft docking was achieved within twenty-one
minutes of Igla lock-on.
During the docking of PROGRESS 33 in November of 1987, the Soviets
experimented with new station orienting procedures since the Igla
system, used by the PROGRESS, required active maneuvering by the
target vehicle. Typical fuel expenditures for docking a PROGRESS to
MIR were approximately 192 kilograms using the old system. "The new
Igla procedure reduced this amount to about 82 kg" (Newkirk, 1990,
page 322).
The first launch of the PROGRESS M, a modified PROGRESS, occurred
in August of 1989. It has an increased on-orbit stay time, "an
improved automated docking system and also is able to transfer unused
fuel to the space station" (Rains, 1990b, page 8). The PROGRESS M
also possesses a return capsule, which was successfully tested on the
PROGRESS M5 mission in November of 1990 (Kiernan, 1990).
Docking Failures
Despite their great experience with docking both manned and
unmanned spacecraft, the Soviets have had several failures during
docking maneuvers. Failures occurred with SOYUZ 15 in August of 1974,
SOYUZ 23 in October of 1976, SOYUZ 25 in October of 1977, SOYUZ 33 in
April of 1979, and SOYUZ T-8 in April of 1983.
The failure of SOYUZ 15 to dock with SALYUT 3 was due either to a
repeated system failure to initiate the manual control phase at a
range of 100 meters (Clark, 1988), or "the automatic system
malfunctioned twice, pushing the ship out of control with excessive
engine burns while only 30 to 50 meters from the station" (Newkirk,
1990, page 128). With a limited battery and fuel supply, the vehicle
had to de-orbit when the docking failed.
In October of 1976, SOYUZ 23 was aborted because of a malfunction
in the automatic docking system. This occurred before the range of
the SOYUZ to the SALYUT 5 station was reduced to 100 meters. Since
the crew of Vyacheslav Zudov and Veleri Rozhdestvenski were trained
to take over from 100 meters, but not before, the crew were forced to
land as soon as possible. The manual back-up mode was not extensive
enough to save this mission. As the Tass news agency reported: "The
spaceship SOYUZ 23 was put into the automatic regime for the approach
to SALYUT 5. Docking with the SALYUT 5 station was canceled because
of an unplanned operation of the approach control system of the ship"
(Clark, 1988, page 74).
Viktor Grobatko flew a successful docking of SOYUZ 24 in February
of 1977 after taking over control at a range of eighty meters. The
Soviets' success was short-lived, however, as failure plagued SOYUZ
25 in October of that year. Vladimir Kovalyonok began the docking
maneuver from 120 meters, but five docking attempts to the SALYUT 6
station failed, due to a faulty docking fixture on the SOYUZ. As
the news release stated:
"At 07.09 [sic] Moscow Time today [10 October] the automatic
rendezvous of the SOYUZ 25 ship and the SALYUT 6 station was begun.
From a distance of 120 metres, the vehicles performed a docking
maneuver. Due to deviations from the planned procedure for docking,
the link-up was called off. The crew has begun making preparations
for a return to Earth (Clark, 1988, pages 104-105)."
While soft docking was achieved, hard docking enabling electrical
connections to be made was not. This failure resulted in the
prohibition of all-rookie crews. Romanenko and Ivanchenkov from the
all-rookie back-up crew were each paired with veteran cosmonauts.
SOYUZ 33, with the fourth international crew (Bulgaria), was
launched in April of 1979. The Igla system was implemented at a range
of nine kilometers. While approaching a range of one kilometer from
SALYUT 6, the SOYUZ automatically fired its main engine for only three
of its scheduled six seconds, causing tremendous shaking. The second
attempt with Igla also failed when it immediately shut down the engine.
As Tass reported: "During the process of approach there occurred
deviations from the regular mode of operation of the approach correc-
ting propulsion unit of the SOYUZ 33 spacecraft, and the docking of
the craft with the SALYUT 6 was aborted" (Clark, 1988, page 114).
The Soviets determined the problem to reside in the SOYUZ main
engine, which was terminating thrust upon a failure to attain normal
combustion pressure. This was the first on-orbit failure of the SOYUZ
propulsion system. The crew returned to Earth without docking. This
amounted to the second failed visit to a SALYUT for Nikolay Rukavish-
nikov, the Soviets' first civilian commander. As a result, the SOYUZ
32 crew in SALYUT 6 did not receive supplies until PROGRESS 6 brought
them in May.
Another failure occurred in April of 1983 with the aborted SOYUZ
T-8 mission. Although the launch shroud accidentally removed the
rendezvous radar antenna, mission controllers decided to violate their
own rules and let Vladimir Titov attempt an optical rendezvous from
ten kilometers. This had never been done before by the Soviets and was
particularly risky since Titov later claimed he had not previously
trained for manual approach and docking. Flight directors assisted
Titov by computing the range rate after Titov reported SALYUT size
estimates.
After a range of 330 meters was passed, the SOYUZ slipped out of
contact with the ground. Without his range rate source, Titov was not
sure of his closing rate. Although he was able to reduce his range to
75 meters with the aid of the SOYUZ's floodlight, he approached at too
high a velocity and, fearing a collision, fired thrusters to change
orbits and abort the docking (Newkirk, 1990).
There had been ten manned launches to SALYUT 1, 3, 4, and 5. Of
these, one had failed to reach orbit (SOYUZ 18A), two had failed to
dock with their SALYUTs (SOYUZ 15 and 23), one had docked but the crew
was unable to transfer to their SALYUT (SOYUZ 10), and one crew had
perished during their return to Earth (SOYUZ 11). This left the
Soviets with a fifty percent success rate if we deem SOYUZ 21 as a
successful mission, even though it was terminated earlier than planned.
From 1977 to 1981 there were sixteen SOYUZ spacecraft launched
towards SALYUT 6. Of these only one failed to dock (SOYUZ 33) and one
docked but the crew could not transfer (SOYUZ 25). In addition, there
were four launches of SOYUZ T craft, twelve launches of PROGRESS
craft, and the KOSMOS 1267 mission, all of which successfully docked
with SALYUT 6. The success rate for SALYUT 6 was ninety-four percent
(Clark, 1988, pages 126-127).
Docking Recoveries
Not all failures resulted in the loss of the mission. During
the SOYUZ T-6 mission in June of 1982, cosmonaut Vladimir Dzhanibekov
rescued the docking with a manual maneuver after the automatic system
failed. After turning the spacecraft around to perform the braking
maneuver, at nine hundred meters from SALYUT 7, the Argon computer
failed and would not realign with the station. Dzhanibekov
disconnected the computer and maneuvered the SOYUZ along all three
axes to resume pointing at the station. His successful docking from
such a far range under manual control was a major achievement
(Newkirk, 1990). The regular failure of the SOYUZ T system during
final approach was usually followed by manual recovery and presumably
led to computer improvements in the SOYUZ TM spacecraft (Clark, 1988).
Vladimir Dzhanibekov was no stranger to docking operations: The
SOYUZ T-6 mission was his third. After five flights he was the Soviet
Union's most experienced cosmonaut. He was the first cosmonaut to fly
more than three space missions.
Dzhanibekov served as back-up commander to Alexei Leonov (the
first man to "walk" in space during the VOSKHOD 2 mission of 1965) for
ASTP. He did not fly in space until January of 1978 with the SOYUZ 27
mission, where he achieved the first double docking with a manned
space station. In March of 1981, Dzhanibekov flew his second flight
in SOYUZ 39 with Mongolian cosmonaut Jugerdemidiin Gurragcha. In July
of 1984, on SOYUZ T-12, he accompanied Svetlana Savitskaya in the first
extra-vehicular activity (EVA) by a female (Hillyer, 1986).
As prime commander of the SOYUZ T-13 mission, Dzhanibekov had
the privilege of testing a new manual docking system in June of 1985.
The primary purpose of this flight was to rescue SALYUT 7 after it
had lost all power and was tumbling aimlessly in Earth orbit. As
Dzhanibekov said:
"There were great difficulties with preparation for docking with
this object. The station seemed to us as a dead space object and
nothing more. And specialists were afraid that it would rotate in
space at too high a speed in three axes. So we had to train and to
find out this optimum way to maneuver around the station to find the
best light conditions of the Sun. And of course to train our hand...
everything had to be done manually" (Hillyer, 1986, page 17).
Equipped with a laser range finder, Dzhanibekov compared the
measured range to SALYUT 7 with the range computed by his spacecraft.
At ten kilometers, Dzhanibekov interrupted the automated approach to
input SALYUT 7 attitude data into the SOYUZ docking computer. The
automatic approach resumed until "3 km distance, at a rate of 12, and
later 6 meters/second when Dzhanibekov took control" (Newkirk, 1990,
page 270). At three kilometers, "there started to be a difference
between our measurements and the radar-calculated data. So I had to
take the handles and step in to direct manually" (Hillyer, 1986, page
17). "At 2 km, the crew used a new optical guidance system, hand-held
laser range finder and a night vision instrument, to see and measure
distance to the station" (Newkirk, page 270).
At a range of two hundred meters, Dzhanibekov nulled the approach
velocity because the Sun was behind the station, making visibility
poor. For ten minutes he circled the station on damage patrol. Then,
in a roll-matching maneuver, he docked with the station. "Later
Dzhanibekov would say, 'Docking is like driving a seven-ton truck with
fragile freight on an icy road into a narrow gate at the end of this
road'" (Kramer, 1990, page 57). The docking was successful and
Dzhanibekov has similar opinions about manual control as APOLLO 11
astronaut Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin: "He shares Aldrin's skepticism about
automated systems and claims that manual control gives the ability to
'operate in [a] wider range'" (Hillyer, page 18).
SALYUT 7 entered Earth's atmosphere on February 7, 1991 ("Soviet
SALYUT 7", 1991, page 15). The SALYUT 7-KOSMOS 1686 system was the
largest object (43 tons) to re-enter since SKYLAB re-entered over
Australia on July 11, 1979. The SALYUT's demise was accelerated by
a peak in solar flare activity during 1989. Earth's atmosphere was
heated by the flares and subsequently rose, causing more drag on the
SALYUT (and other spacecraft in Earth orbit) than would have occurred
with a less active Sun.
Admittedly, one of the main reasons for manual control is
emotional or political: Namely, pilots would rather fly than watch.
However, the successful rescues mentioned previously would not have
been possible without human intervention.
Another recovery was made with SOYUZ TM-5 (the thirteenth
international crew, a Bulgarian) in June of 1988. Although the Kurs
system malfunctioned during the final approach, flight controllers
diagnosed the problem and a successful docking was completed within
two days of the launch.
In June of 1990, a docking recovery was achieved with an unmanned
vehicle. Docking of the KRISTALL ("Crystal") module with the MIR space
station was automatically aborted when a KRISTALL computer discovered
a malfunction in one of its attitude control thrusters. Ground
controllers used a backup set of thrusters to complete the docking
operation successfully (Rains, 1990a).
References -
Aldrin, Edwin B., and M. McConnell, MEN FROM EARTH, Bantam Books,
New York, 1989
Baker, D., THE HISTORY OF MANNED SPACE FLIGHT, Crown Publishers,
Inc., New York, 1982
Clark, Phillip, THE SOVIET MANNED SPACE PROGRAM, Orion Books,
New York, 1988
Friedman L. H., and T. Heinsheimer, "Build a U.S.-Soviet Team for
Mars", SPACE NEWS, July 2-8, 1990, pages 15-16
Hillyer, M. S., "Cosmonauts Have the Right Stuff, Too: A Conver-
sation with Vladimir Dzhanibekov", SPACE WORLD, September, 1986,
pages 17-20
Kiernan, V., "New PROGRESS Capsule Completes Successful Sample-
Return Mission", SPACE NEWS, December 3-9, 1990, page 28
Kramer, S. B., "The Rescue of SALYUT 7", AIR & SPACE SMITHSONIAN,
February/March, 1990, pages 54-59
Newkirk, Dennis, ALMANAC OF SOVIET MANNED SPACE FLIGHT, Gulf
Publishing Company, Houston, Texas, 1990
Oberg, James E., RENDEZVOUS AND PROXIMITY OPERATIONS HANDBOOK,
(JSC-10589), NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center Mission Operations
Directorate Flight Design and Dynamics Division, Houston, Texas, 1988
Rains, L., "KRISTALL, MIR Dock on Second Try; Space Walk Next",
SPACE NEWS, June 10-16, 1990a, pages 1, 4, 21
Rains, L., "Soviets Seek to Solve MIR Bottleneck with PROGRESS M",
SPACE NEWS, September 10-16, 1990b, page 8
Sedej, D. T., and S. F. Clarke, RENDEZVOUS AND PROXIMITY OPERATIONS
WORKBOOK (RNDZ 2102), NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center Mission
Operations Directorate Training Division Flight Training Branch,
Houston, Texas, 1985
"Soviet SALYUT 7", AVIATION WEEK & SPACE TECHNOLOGY, February 11,
1991, page 15
Related EJASA Articles -
"The Great Moon Race: The Soviet Story, Part One", by Andrew J.
LePage - December 1990
"The Great Moon Race: The Soviet Story, Part Two", by Andrew J.
LePage - January 1991
"The Great Moon Race: New Findings", by Andrew J. LePage - May 1991
About the Author -
Adam R. Brody received S.B. and S.M. degrees in Aeronautics and
Astronautics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in
Cambridge, Massachusetts, and a diploma as a member of the founding
conference of the International Space University (ISU). Adam also
received his M.A. degree in Psychology from San Jose State University
in California.
Adam is a senior aerospace engineer/experimental psychologist
for Sterling Software, Palo Alto, California. Among the NASA Ames
Research Center organizations with which he has worked are the
Centrifuge Facility Project Office, Human Interface Research Branch,
EVA Systems Branch, and the Aerospace Human Factors Research Division.
Adam is the author of over thirty-five research papers on various
topics relating to performance aspects of humans in space. Adam
pioneered a comprehensive study of the human factors and manual
control aspects of orbital flight and he developed the Space Station
Proximity Operations Simulator at Ames for his studies. He also
initiated a research program to quantify EVA rescue requirements, and
created of an orbital trajectory planning tool for the Macintosh
computer system.
Adam's research interests include the human factors and manual
control requirements of space station proximity operations and other
manned space flight operations. Recent work includes development
and simulation of an EVA self-rescue technique using the Virtual
Interactive Environmental Workstation (VIEW). Currently, he serves
as the human factors expert on the systems engineering staff of the
Centrifuge Facility Project Office at Ames, where he developed the
Payload Resource In Space Monitor (PRISM) for tracking resources on
the FREEDOM space station. He is currently using object-oriented
rapid prototyping to develop software requirements for the space
station facility.
Adam is a member of the Space Operations and Support Technical
Committee of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
where he is chairman of the Human Factors, Automation and Robotics
Sub-committee. He is also a member of the National Air and Space
Museum, the Union of Concerned Scientists, a founding sponsor of the
CHALLENGER Center, and a charter member of the Technology Center of
Silicon Valley. His biography is listed in Personalities of America,
the Dictionary of International Biography, Who's Who of Emerging
Leaders in America, Who's Who Among Young American Professionals,
and Who's Who in the West.
Adam may be reached through E-mail at brody@eos.arc.nasa.gov
FIRST INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON OPTICAL SETI
Dr. Stuart A. Kingsley
From the author of the January 1992 six-part EJASA article (Vol. 3,
No. 6A-6F) on Optical SETI (OSETI):
As a result of that article and floppy disk versions that I mailed
to key members of the laser communications community, I was asked during
the summer by Dr. David L. Begley of Ball Aerospace Systems Group, to
organize a conference on Optical SETI for SPIE (The International
Society of Optical Engineering). This was originally planned to be a
single session in SPIE's Free-Space Laser Communication Technologies V
conference, chaired by Dr. Stephen Mecherle of TRW, Inc. Twelve months
ago, I would not have believed that one year after publication of
the EJASA article, we would be in the position to organize what is
effectively, though unofficially, the First International Conference
on Optical SETI.
Even though the summer vacation period was a difficult time to
organize a conference, I was able to get so many papers at short notice,
that the single session was extended into a dedicated conference with
three sessions and a separate published proceedings (approximately 200
pages). The latter will be available (hopefully) shortly after the
conference and will constitute the first publication on this subject.
The OSETI conference follows on immediately after the Free-Space Laser
Communication Technologies V conference.
This event will be of particular interest to laser communications
scientists and engineers. It presents the opportunity to help resolve
the dichotomy within NASA that while lasers are fine for GEO to GEO, GEO
to LEO, deep-space and interstellar communications, ETIs would not use
such technology to signal emerging technical civilizations (us). The
first session has been devised to bring the laser communications
community up to speed on Microwave (Conventional) SETI (MSETI) and
general SETI related matters. The second and third sessions are
specifically devoted to Optical SETI topics. Since I thought it
important to get a variety of opinions as to the veracity of SETI and
the efficacy of the optical approach, I have included many shades of
opinion.
We are fortunate in being able to have Arthur C. Clarke kick off
this conference from his home in Sri Lanka. We are working to set up a
live international satellite link with Arthur C. Clarke but at a minimum
we will have a video-taped address. These days, Clarke's health
precludes extensive travelling. We are also investigating the
possibility that NASA Select TV could cover the entire conference on a
live or taped-delayed basis. If you cannot attend this conference but
would like to see it transmitted by NASA Select, write to SPIE and NASA
Headquarters requesting this coverage. The more people lobby for this
the more likely we will get the cooperation of the concerned parties.
For those with a TVRO (TeleVision Receive Only) satellite dish, NASA
Select TV is available on Satcom F2R (72 W), Transponder 13.
The "Grand Old Man" of SETI, Dr. Bernard M. Oliver, who is extremely
critical of the optical approach, will demonstrate for the first time to
the laser communications community why ETIs would not use lasers for
(SETI) interstellar communications. We also have Professor Frank
Tipler, a strong critic of SETI, explaining why both Microwave and
Optical SETI is a waste of time since he thinks that we are the first
civilization in this galaxy. Noted philosopher, Professor Neil Tennant,
will present his ideas as to why there could be major problems in
actually decoding the message on an ETI signal. There will be a
discussion roundtable at the end of the conference, moderated by Nobel
laureate Charles Townes, who earlier will be talking about his Carbon
Dioxide (CO2) Optical SETI laser work, and the CO2 OSETI observations
presently being conducted by Dr. Albert Betz on Mt. Wilson.
This "controversial" conference should be a "fun" event but you
don't need to be a laser communications engineer or SETI scientist to
attend this conference - just a curiosity about "our" place in the grand
scheme of things.
You are encouraged to remail this issue of EJASA to anyone you know
with interests in SETI. You might like to print out the program below
and pin it up on your astronomical society, company, faculty, or school
notice board.
Here now is the Advance Technical Program:
OE/LASE '93
THE SEARCH FOR EXTRATERRESTRIAL INTELLIGENCE (SETI)
IN THE OPTICAL SPECTRUM
SPIE Proceedings Vol. 1867
Location: Los Angeles Airport Hilton Hotel, Los Angeles, California,
USA.
Conference Chairman: Dr. Stuart A. Kingsley, Fiberdyne Optoelectronics.
Co-chair: Dr. Monte Ross, Laser Data Technology, Inc.
SESSION 1 - INTRODUCTION AND CONVENTIONAL MICROWAVE SETI
Session Chairman - Dr. Stuart A. Kingsley, Fiberdyne Optoelectronics.
Thursday, January 21, 1993
Afternoon
1:30 to 6:00 pm
"Let There be Light"
(Keynote Address)
Arthur C. Clarke
Chancellor - International Space University, Sri Lanka.
(30 minutes)
Recorded or live video address from his home in Sri Lanka.
(1867-01)
"The NASA Search for Evidence of Extraterrestrial Technologies"
(Keynote Paper)
David Brocker
(30 minutes)
Project Manager, MOP
SETI Office
NASA Ames Research Center
(1867-02)
"Strategies for SETI Target Selection"
Dr. David W. Latham and Dr. David R. Soderblom
(20 minutes)
Dr. David W. Latham
Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics
Dr. David R. Soderblom
Associate Astronomer
Space Telescope Science Institute
(1867-03)
"High-Resolution Microwave All-Sky Survey"
Dr. Michael J. Klein and Dr. Samuel Gulkis
(20 minutes)
Dr. Michael J. Klein
MOP Program Manager
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Dr. Samuel Gulkis
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
(1867-04)
"SETI - A Waste of Time!"
(Invited Paper)
Professor Frank Tipler
(30 minutes)
Physics Department
Tulane University
(1867-05)
"Using Modern Analytical Philosophy (MAP) to Sweep the MOP Clean:
Non-optical Reflections upon Untapped Data, Bad Arguments and the
Nonexistence of Von Neumann Interstellar Probes."
Clive Goodall
(30 minutes)
Department of Philosophy
The Ohio State University
(1867-06)
"The Decoding Problem: Do We Need to Search for Extra Terrestrial
Intelligence to Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence?"
Professor Neil W. Tennant
(30 minutes)
Department of Philosophy
The Ohio State University
(1867-07)
SESSION 2 - OPTICAL SETI I
Session Chairman - Dr. Monte Ross, Laser Data Technology, Inc.
Friday, January 22, 1993
Morning
8:30 to 11:30 am
"Fundamental Factors Affecting the Optimum Frequency Range for SETI"
(Invited Paper)
Dr. Bernard M. Oliver
(30 minutes)
Deputy Chief, NASA SETI Office
NASA Ames Research Center
(1867-08)
"The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) in the Optical
Spectrum and Professional Optical SETI: A Review"
Dr. Stuart A. Kingsley
(30 minutes)
President
Fiberdyne Optoelectronics
(1867-09)
"An Economic Rationale for Extraterrestrials Using Lasers for SETI"
Dr. Monte Ross
(20 minutes)
President
Laser Data Technology, Inc.
(1867-10)
"Infrared SETI"
Professor Charles H. Townes
(30 minutes)
Department of Physics
Space Sciences Laboratory
University of California, Berkeley
(1867-11)
"Use of Lasers for Interstellar Beacons, Communications and Travel"
Dr. John Rather
(20 minutes)
NASA Headquarters
(1867-12)
"Optical SETI from the Southern Hemisphere"
Dr. Guillermo A. Lemarchand, Dr. Gregory M. Beskin,
Dr. Fernando R. Colomb, and Dr. Mariano Mendez
(20 minutes)
Dr. Guillermo A. Lemarchand
Visiting Fellow
Center for Radiophysics and
Space Research
Cornell University
Dr. Gregory M. Beskin
Special Astrophysical Observatory
Soviet Academy of Science
Dr. Fernando Raul Colomb
Director
Instituto Argentino de Radioastronomia
Dr. Mariano Mendez
Researcher
Observatorio Astronomico de La Plata
(1867-13)
SESSION 3 - OPTICAL SETI II
Session Chairman - Dr. James R. Lesh, Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Friday, January 22, 1993
Afternoon
1:00 to 2:00 pm
"Application of One Measure of Search Merit to Optical SETI"
Dr. D. Kent Cullers
(20 minutes)
Signal Detection Sub-System Manager
SETI Project
NASA Ames Research Center
(1867-14)
"Large M-ary Pulse Position Modulation and Photon Buckets for
Effective Interstellar Communications"
Dr. Monte Ross
(20 minutes)
President
Laser Data Technology, Inc.
(1867-15)
"Amateur Optical SETI"
Dr. Stuart A. Kingsley
(20 minutes)
President
Fiberdyne Optoelectronics
(1867-16)
Workshop/Panel Discussion
4.00 - 6.00 pm
Moderator - Professor Charles H. Townes, University of California,
Berkeley.
General Discussion Roundtable
Possible inclusion of Arthur C. Clarke in discussion via telephone.
To receive a copy of the Advance Technical Program from SPIE which
also provides information about registration, accommodation, and costs
to attend this conference (see details below), contact Rosa Cays
(rosa@mom.spie.org) or Terry Montonye (terry@mom.spie.org) at:
SPIE
P.O. Box 10
Bellingham
WA 98227-0010
Tel: (206) 676-3290
Fax: (206) 647-1445
The manuscript due date is December 21. It will be possible to
accept a couple of late papers on Microwave and Optical SETI if bios and
abstracts are submitted to the conference chairman for approval before
November 15. For more information and to submit abstracts, Stuart
Kingsley can be contacted at:
Fiberdyne Optoelectronics
545 Northview Drive
Columbus
Ohio 43209
Tel/Fax: (614) 258-7402
Bulletin Board System (BBS): (614) 258-1710
Internet: skingsle@magnus.acs.ohio-state.edu
CompuServe: 72376,3545
OE/LASE '93 includes symposia over the period 16-23 January 1993 on the
following subjects:
Free-Space Laser Communications V (January 20-21, 1993).
The Search For Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) in the Optical
Spectrum (January 21-22, 1993).
Laser Engineering (January 17-22, 1993).
Optoelectronic Processing and Interconnects (January 17-23, 1993).
Biomedical Optics '93 (January 16-22, 1993).
There are also educational short courses (January 17-22, 1993) and
two technical exhibitions, the Medical Exhibition (January 16-17, 1993),
and the Laser and Sensor Exhibition (January 19-21, 1993).
Registration
Member Working Non-
Group Member
Full Conference* $355 $380 $415
Author (full conf.) $290 $310 $340
One day $165 $175 $190
Author (one day) $140 $150 $165
Students (no lunch) $ 60 $N/A $ 70
*Rate for a three-day conference.
**There is no separate registration rate for the SETI conference.
Attendees for the SETI conference will have to pay for two days.
If you can spare the time, attendees are recommended to take in the
Wednesday morning and afternoon, and Thursday morning sessions of the
Free-Space Laser Communication Technologies V conference, as this
technology is very relevant to Optical SETI. The cost for the full
conference period (three days) is little more than for the two day SETI
conference alone.
SPIE Proceedings Volume 1867 $ 35
These proceedings will also include a copy of Dr. Lesh's large
review paper on NASA's optical communications activities, which is to be
presented at the Free-Space Laser Communication Technologies V
conference.
Accommodation
Los Angeles Airport Hilton Hotel (SETI Conference Center)
5711 West Century Boulevard
Los Angeles, California 90045, USA
Tel: (310) 410-4000
Fax: (310) 410-6250
Rates:
Single or double (government) $81
Single or double $89 - $109
Los Angeles Airport Marriott Hotel
5855 West Century Boulevard
Los Angeles, California 90045, USA
Tel: (310) 641-5700
Fax: (310) 337-5358
Rates:
Single or double (government) $80
Single or double $85 - $105
NOTE:
Articles on SETI have appeared in recent magazine publications,
which include the September issue of LIFE magazine, the October issue
of ASTRONOMY, and the November/December issue of SMITHSONIAN AIR &
SPACE. See also upcoming issues of TIME and NEWSWEEK. The November
issue of SKY & TELESCOPE has a long article by Robert Naeye about
Microwave SETI, and mentions the optical approach. This is the first
published popular account of OSETI in the printed media.
This month, in celebration of the Quincentennial of Columbus'
discovery of the Americas and the official start of NASA's Microwave
Observing Project (MOP) on Columbus Day (October 12), I am beginning the
construction of what is believed to be the world's first Amateur Optical
SETI Observatory. This will be based around a Schmidt-Cassegrain
telescope of about 10-inch aperture. The telescope will probably be the
new Meade LX200, as it is one of the most advanced on the market today
for use under computer and CCD control.
In the last paper of the conference, I will be reporting on the
amateur approach to Optical SETI (AMOSETI) and any work done to date
on my observatory system. EJASA will from time to time carry progress
reports on this activity and the outcome of the conference. As I
indicated in last January's EJASA Optical SETI article, it is my
intention that AMOSETI will become a world-wide activity for amateur
astronomy groups and societies. In the January 1993 issue of EJASA,
there will an addendum to last January's EJASA article, including
updated conference program information. I look forward to meeting
with you in Los Angeles in January.
Dr. Stuart A. Kingsley
Related EJASA Articles -
"Does Extraterrestrial Life Exist?", by Angie Feazel - November 1989
"Suggestions for an Intragalactic Information Exchange System",
by Lars W. Holm - November 1989
"Radio Astronomy: A Historical Perspective", by David J. Babulski
- February 1990
"Getting Started in Amateur Radio Astronomy", by Jeffrey M. Lichtman
- February 1990
"A Comparison of Optical and Radio Astronomy", by David J. Babulski
- June 1990
"The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) in the Optical
Spectrum, Parts A-E", by Dr. Stuart A. Kingsley - January 1992
"History of the Ohio SETI Program", by Robert S. Dixon - June 1992
"New Ears on the Sky: The NASA SETI Microwave Observing Project",
the ARC and JPL SETI Project - July 1992
THE ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF THE ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF THE ATLANTIC
October 1992 - Vol. 4, No. 3
Copyright (c) 1992 - ASA
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