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Article #15543Consciousness as seen by Ron Blue and W.E.H.Blue
From: Ron Blue(posted by someone else)
Date: Sun, 17 May 1998 00:00
Date: Sun, 17 May 1998 00:00
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136282 bytes
"One thing I have learned in a long life: that all our science,
measured against reality, is primitive and childlike -- and yet it is
the most precious thing we have." -- Albert Einstein,
Correlational Opponent-Processing:
A Unifying Principle
by Ronald C. Blue and Wanda Eileen Hatcher
Blue
Copyright 1996
All Rights Reserved
Permission granted to duplicate for
non-profit educational or research
purposes.
KEYWORDS: correlational
opponent-processing, opponent process,
wavelets, neuro net, excitatory,
inhibitory, EXIN, oscillation, holographic,
eigenfunction, chaos, nerves, habituation,
discorrelation, memory, sensations,
perceptions, emotions, evolution, brain
damage.
Abstract:
The correlational opponent-processing
theory using wavelets, quasi-holographic
memory and eigenfunction equivalence
generates new insights into many areas of
psychology. The model seems especially
strong in joining many contradictory
scientific facts into an unifying whole.
Significant implications from the model
exist for a wide range of psychological
topics and principles.
The correlational opponent-processing
theory is a neuro homeostasis integration
psychological immune theory that would
connect phenomena such as sensation,
perception, movement, habituation, memory,
representations, learning, cognition,
personality, psychopathology, paradoxical
integration, emotion, and evolution of the
mind under a unified theory.
All brain activity may be viewed as an
effort to assimilate and accommodate all
experience into neuro-energy-efficient
eigenfunction equivalence or
quasi-holographic correlational
opponent-processing recordings.
Stimuli causes brain wave modulations which
interact with carrier or reference
wavelets. This interaction creates a
quasi-holographic stimulus wavelet. The
opponent-process creates an opposing
quasi-holographic memory wavelet. Through
this process the correlations or
associations of experience are encoded to
memory. Every wavelet, regardless of source
or type, triggers an opposing wavelet. The
function of the opposing wavelet or
feedback is to diminish the intensity of
neural processing. A wavelet potential is
stored or hard wired as long-term
potentiation opponent-processes in nerve
cells and the interconnections between
nerve cells. The wavelets are
quasi-holographic and allow recovery of
information due to the interaction of
reference carrier wavelets and stimuli,
thought, motor movement, and emotional
arousal.
Discussion:
Caveat emptor - let the buyer beware. A
theory can sound true and not be true.
Always be suspicious of a global theory
that explains everything. Correlational
opponent processing theory has some of
these characteristics. It has been a very
seductive theory to us.
A system is a mixture of component parts
that when united together produce results
that are greater than any individual part.
According to Solomon (1980)
opponent-process is a basic biological
system that may be viewed as starting from
a baseline state or equilibrium. Activation
of an A process automatically activates an
opposite or opposing process B. The
equation then can be stated as the absolute
value of A process minus B process which
creates a resultant. The resultant can be
an observable behavior. "Every experiment
generated by the model has failed to refute
the model, even though the experiments have
been designed to be capable of doing so.
... The opponent-processing theory is quite
encompassing".
A simple illustration of correlation
opponent-processing can be accomplished
with the following procedure: take your
fists and put your fists together side by
side; press them firmly together for one
minute; since the fist are touching each
other and you have made the pressure equal,
the situation is correlated; the balance
illustrates correlation
opponent-processing. Allison Graves (1994)
provided a more interesting illustration of
correlational opponent-processing. Quickly
pull your fists apart and place them about
one inch next to each other. You will
notice that your fists seems to be
attracted toward each other like a magnet!
A wave is an oscillation with a specific
number of cycles per second. You can
observe a wave by tying a rope to a wall
and modulating the lose end up and down. If
your timing and energy is perfect the wave
will bounce back from the wall as an
inversion wave. A wavelet can be made with
many individual ropes vibrating at
different frequencies and time cycles. To
see the wavelet as a unified phenomenon the
ropes must all be tied together. Another
illustration of a wavelet can be
experienced by observing what happens when
a rock is thrown into water. The wave
pattern is the structure that determines
the wavelet. The water is just one of many
physical systems that possess the
characteristic of allowing wavelets to
propagate through them. What is true of
physical systems should be true of
biological and psychological systems.
To understand the concept of opponent
process and wavelets consider a wave
machine consisting of two plates of glass
that are very close to each other and
sealed so that the blue water and the clear
oil inside will not spill out. The length
of the wave machine represents the power
spectrum that can exist for the waves that
can be generated in the machine. The waves
in the water are seductively simple in
their form. What is not immediately
apparent is the fact that the oil on top of
the water is moving as an opponent system
to the water. The sum of all power spectrum
over the length of the machine is zero or
balance. At any single position in the wave
machine the observed variation appears to
be chaotic and totally random. This of
course is not true, the system as a whole
is totally deterministic for the power
spectrum of the wave machine. Now imagine a
cube wave machine except now the water and
the oil can mix together so that both
systems exist and influence each other. The
goal is to maintain the power spectrum at
balance over multiple dimensional wave
machines with different angles of
orientation. Not a simple task but you do
it in your brain every second. Pathologies
arise when you can not.
Look at a color television set. Look
carefully at the screen with a magnifying
lens. You will see blue, green, and red
dots. The dots go on and off. The dots
symbolically represent nerve cells firing.
Take the television set apart. You will see
transistors, resistors, capacitors, and
integrated circuits. These symbolically
represent nerve cells. When you back up
from the television screen you will observe
a picture. The picture originates from a
television electromagnetic wave. If you
looked at the electromagnetic wave on an
oscilloscope you would not recognize that
the electromagnetic wave corresponds to or
was a copy of the picture that will be
ultimately displayed on the television
screen. For human neuro function all that
is necessary is that there be a consistent
relationship or association with neuro
wavelets and external and internal events.
At this time data suggest that this is a
fundamental truth for the nervous system.
The correlational opponent-processing (COP)
theory would accept that all learning and
memory is associative, correlational,
energy- efficient, integrative, cognitive,
eigenfunction equivalence,
quasi-holographic and the result of
information processing. Memory iscreated as
a correlational pattern of
opponent-processing consisting of firing
and inhibition of individual nerve cells.
This means the major goal of the brain is
to form the smallest number of
correlational firings of nerve cells to
external and internal stimuli (Bower, 1992;
Bower, 1994 & Southwell, 1994). Why nerve
cells form correlations at first may seem
to be mysterious and connected to learning
or biology. But now it appears the
correlations are due to the results of
natural principles that have more to due
with the mathematics and physics of
oscillators and synchronization phenomenon
(Strogatz and Stewart, 1993) and (Peterson,
1995). In addition the reason why this is
the goal is due to the mathematical way the
data or experiences have been packed or
compressed as a mental equation or
eigenfunction equivalence that allows for
the recovery of that information. Another
reason why this is the goal is due to the
way complex systems adapt through self-
organization. Such systems exhibit
subcritical, critical, and supercritical
phenomenon. For example, if one pours sand
into one location it builds ups and
collapses at different levels of intensity.
A subcritical period would be a stable
region of the sand getting larger and
larger without collapse. A small collapses
would be a critical event. A large
reorganization of the sand would be
supercritical phenomenon. This means that
the brain is using a universal adaptive
principle of existing on the edge of order
and randomness (Ruthen, 1993) & (Pendick,
1993). New cognitions are due to
consequences created by randomness, chaos,
and major catastrophic reorganization
resulting in new integrations. These new
cognitions allow for selective advantages
for adapting to and understanding the
environment. Support for catastrophic
reorganization is suggested in the
stagewise cognitive development of children
reported by Maas and Molenaar (1992).
Neuro Net:
Neuro netters are developing and
experimenting with computer programs to
simulate neural activity. To us the most
exciting results have been generated with a
program call EXIN. Jonathan A. Marshall and
Richard K. Alley (1993) reported that EXIN
(excitatory + inhibitory) network
self-organized by using inhibitory and
excitatory learning rules with two parallel
opponent channels or chains. This program
successfully learned depth relations from
occlusion event.
Lisman and Idiart (1995) successful modeled
short-term memories with oscillatory
subcycles, thusly proving that information
can be encoded into oscillations.
Interestingly, in order to get the model to
work, a feedback inhibition oscillation
loop had to built into the model. The work
suggest that the brain uses high frequency
cycles encoded into low-frequency carrier
subcycles to make an engram.
Oscillators:
Physicist Yoshiki Kuramoto at the
University of Kyto, Japan has created a
mathematical oscillator model that has
implications to the topic of consciousness
and neuro processing (Peterson, 1996). The
basic idea is that ALL oscillators respond
to or are characterized by a set of
differential equations with two components.
The first equation is used to describe what
each oscillator would due individually.
This can be viewed as phases or wave
patterns traced over a circle. The circle
must be expanded so that the start and stop
of a cycle occur at the same point. The
second equation is used to describe how
oscillators influence each other, i.e. to
speed up or slow down other oscillators. A
stability results from the equal and global
collective oscillation frequencies. This
has been used with Josephson junctions to
create extremely accurate timing devices.
An array of Josephson junction oscillators
model neuro circuits. Mathematical
principles and observations emerge with
suggestions for neuro processing and
consciousness.
A collective system from the two equations
would start out chaotic with individual
independent oscillations. A phase
transition first suggested by Arthur T.
Winfree at the University of Arizona in
Tucson analogous to phase transitions such
as the freezing of a liquid results in an
intermediate stage in which oscillators are
partially synchronized. Oscillators near
the average Gaussian frequencies phase lock
and cause the collective to emerge as a
coherence. This would equal a THOUGHT or
conscious experience. It is important to
remember this is a global and individual
interaction of neural oscillators. So one
can phase shift any wavelet component in
neuro processing and influence other
wavelet neuro processing system. For
example; running on a treadmill get off
quickly and see the room appear to go
forward from a Gaussian opponent wavelet
interaction.
Hempfling, 1996 correctly recognizes that a
wavelet interaction is far too short in
duration to create a single seconds long
event. The binding problem seems to be
solved nicely by Hempfling proposal (1995)
of synchronicity in massive parallelism.
"1.2 Binding is acquired in the overlapping
and in the synchronicity as well as in the
joint arrival of syncratic values being
converted from the brain's operating
function to the body's operating function
in the limbic system. If you will: The
input sensor accepts data /\ right side up
in increments of twice a second per
receptor. The data is converted to \/
upside down (which we see as being the way
the brain `sees'.) It is split into seven
distinct values. Three of which are
identicle and able to be borrowed from or
which are identicle and able to be borrowed
from or attached to replace damaged
pathways, two are variable in opposite
directions and two are stable never
varying. That data is once again converted
to /\ right side up as it is compared to
long term memory in the 1st comparator at a
speed some 30 times in higher frequency to
the input receptor's. 1.3 Wave length is
indicated by frequency as 30:1 comparisons
occur. The values are also then sent to the
limbic system for instant response ability.
The result is \/ upside down values which
are sent to the second or mid term memory
where it is compared to the third memory in
/\ right side up method at another 30:1
increase in frequency (resulting in short
term memory lasting only 7 seconds but
physically taking up the entire outer layer
of the cortex) and the result of that is
sent to the third memory in a \/ upside
down value and also to the first memory in
snips of the slower operating frequency and
also to the motion motivation conversion
limbic system where it results in
comparison to steady rest signals to the
muscle groups (values thereof controlled in
feed back loops) and provides `don`t rest`
signals to result in levels of movement we
perceive as exertion."
Quasi-holographic wavelets:
Wavelet theory (Cipra, 1990 and Newland,
1993) and quantum chaos with eigenfunction
equivalence (Peterson, 1995) appears
promising to help explain how information
is formed and retrieved. Wavelet theory is
an advancement over fourier analysis of the
sine and cosine functions of brain
oscillating patterns. Wavelet analysis
allows one to separate the individual wave
components and the start/stop cycle of each
wave in the wavelet. An eigenfunction
equivalence or quasi-holographic mental
wavelet, by analogy, is like the mean and
standard deviation of normal data. A mental
wavelet predicts the present, variations,
the future, and the past. The past that is
predicted is not necessarily the one that
actually occurred and the future that is
predicted may never occur. Wavelet theory
and quantum chaos with eigenfunction
equivalence may provide a way to understand
how the brain packs so much data into a
schema, idea, model, belief or theory.
Wavelets of learned activity should produce
constructive interference (high neural
activity) and destructive interference (low
neural activity). The situation is
complicated by superposition of
information. It will be extremely difficult
to observe directly neurowavelets and their
actions. The fact that something can not be
observed directly does not mean we should
ignore the possibilities of the model.
Almost every neurobiologist knows that the
brain is the organ of the mind and that it
generates wave functions from a simple sine
wave, reverberation of Hebbian precise
interspike-interval patterns, to complex
sub-milisecond waves that allows for energy
efficient coincidence detection (Softky,
1993).
Waves propagate through many types of
mediums. The rules of nature that apply to
wave activity should be similar to the
rules of neural wave transmission.
Steinblock et al. (1995) research on
determining the best pathway in a chemical
maze through high speed photography of the
changing colors illustrates the concept.
Wave systems typically consist of waves
traveling at constant velocities that
interact with one another. Sometimes this
interaction will lead to annihilation of
other waves. Gurney (1995) reports that the
idea of using diffusion equations and wave
models for neural theory has been suggested
by Jack Cowan for self-organizing nets,
Alan Turing for morphogenesis in biological
systems, H. Haken for synergetics, and
Swindale for similarity between zebra
stripes and ocular dominance columns.
Further support for neural modulation and
correlation being a major characteristic of
neural processing is suggested by Vaadia et
al (1995). Neurons associate fast and
influence correlated firing in functional
groups.
Wolf Singer's research revealed a
correlated synchronous neural firing to the
same visual object with a oscillating wave
of 40 hertz (Barinaga, 1990). Singer thinks
that the oscillations may provide the
answer to the question on how neurons pool
information. Thoughts occur in real time
and may be thought of as occurring in 40
hertz cycles. Nerve cells have this time
frame when setting their configurations.
This does not mean that this is the only
special frequency in the nervous system.
Traditionally we have thought that nerve
impulses are best represented in an on/off
system. With the concept of a wave, the
model may be thought of neurotransmitters
acting as vectors. For example, the hearing
system does not process left/right
frequency modulations. We would suggest
that there may be structural reasons for
this. Wavelets may use vectors of
left/right, forward/backward, and some +/-
system to represent time. Such procedures
should be useful for encoding data into
neural wavelets. If this speculation is
true then this would suggest that special
regions of the brain would interact with
these modulations. Therefore, some areas
that are uni-directional should exist and
would not necessarily contradict COP
theory. Take a bucket of water that is
vibrating with a cork in it and you will
notice that the cork will move to a stable
region in the water. High neural firings in
particular areas of the brain does not
necessarily mean that this is the location
of that memory function.
Greg J. Stuart and Bert Sakmann (1994)
found back-propagation in neurons that
provide a rapid retrograde signal that may
assist the neurons in its computational
efforts. These reverse oscillations are
likely to have significant importance to
COP theory. It is possible that the
vesicles that store the neurotransmitters
have a charge and are sensitive to the
oscillations in the nerves electrical
field. It is possible that the harmonics of
these oscillations would be specific to a
neurotransmitter and result in high
physical activity ultimately resulting in
the release of the neurotransmitter in
response to sub-milisecond electrical field
oscillations.
It has been suggested that apical dendrite
is a specialized recipient of feedback
information coming from higher cortical
areas (Yuste, etc., 1994). This could be an
opponent process.
According to Peter Laudrup (1994) "The way
I see neurotransmitters (in a brain that
processes waves more than serial
information) is that release of a
neurotransmitter and the acceptance
postsynaptically will lead to a change of
_one_ of the waves dimensions. If the wave
is a vector/multidimensional matrix each
neuron will represent a dimension. However,
I think so much biochemical evidence point
to the action potential as an on/off
process, that the components of the wave
dimensions have to be considered binary. On
the other hand, you could consider some of
the protein neurotransmitters, that have no
direct action but is thought to diffuse to
a wide area from the point of release and
thereby effect a lot of neurons by
modulating their threshold for action
potential as vector transmitters."
Dennis McClain-Furmanski (1994) made the
following suggestions and comments. The
intraneuronal microtubules may be the
physical storage space of the oppositional
signal. Both Stuart Hameroff and Roger
Penrose have done intensive work looking at
these structures. The COP model is
certainly less esoteric than their model.
The idea that the mind may be influenced by
quantum mechanics is not contradicted by
COP theory. It does not require a great
leap in intellectual insight to connect
Guastello's (1988) concepts of catastrophe
theory, chaos, and the cusp model to neuro
processing. The manifold and cusp model
could be influenced at the critical moment
by quantum effects.
David Southwell (1994) position is that
"resonances" in "Columnar Array Networks"
consisting of interconnected columar
complex assemblage of 50,000 neurons
running throughout the cortical layers
becomes the functional unit of intelligent
processing of stimulation. While there may
be a difference in the terminology,
Southwell's insight of resonnance and the
necessity of energy efficiency is at a
fundamental level similar to ours.
Heanue, Bashaw, & Hesselink (1994) have
developed a volume holographic computer
storage system which use a reference
hologram to retrieve the stored data. We
would suggest that the correlated
synchronous firing revealed by Singer is
used as a reference quasi-holographic
wavelet for the brain. Klimesch (1995)
reported that alpha frequency is associated
with retrieval of semantic long term memory
and theta oscillations are associated with
retrieval of episodic short term memory
demands. These could be reference
frequencies.
According R. Tim Coslet (1995) when viewing
a hologram with a different laser frequency
than the one used to take the picture the
image produced results in a change in size
proportional to the change in wavelength
between the two light sources. Neural
quasi-hologram should produce variation and
deviations from the original memory in a
Gaussian distribution. This would result
from the recovery of memories with
different oscillating neural frequencies.
Theios and Amrhein (1989) research suggest
that "a stimulus is a stimulus is a
stimulus, independent of its ... mode".
This puzzling result suggests that a
quasi-holographic neurowavelet is created
by brain wave modulations created by
stimuli and the interactions or correlation
of current experience and changes in
neuroconnections from long-term
potentiation due to past experience.
Ghislaine Dehaene-Lambertz and Stanislas
Dehaene (1994) research on speech sounds
and changes in babies brains suggest a
mirror image of the stimulus wavelet. This
mirror image is in our opinion a memory
wavelet. Since a wavelet is like an
average, the standard 3 modulation pattern
for event-related potential (ERP) is
interpreted to represent an approximation
of the average wavelet for the stimulus
"ba". The surprise stimulus "ga" is
followed by a inversion ERP. This inversion
is interpreted as a memory wavelet for "ba"
+ not. If this pattern can be replicated it
would suggest support for correlational
opponent- processing theory.
Hempfling, 1996 reports that this pattern
has been replicated in equations and is
related to Heisenberg uncertainity
principle. The wave function would be
related to a thought or conversation and
function as if it was a particle.
Attractors and consciousness:
Oliver Sachs (1992) reported that 60
patients out of 396 lost consciousness
associated with migraines. Migraines with
visual aurasand complicated mathematical
geometric designs have been reported. Such
designs suggest interacting wavelets. In
electronics a repeating oscillation can
result in a display similar to the reported
visual auras reported by some migraine
subjects. Major movements in art may have
been created by migraine auras such as
cubism, pointalism, modern abstract art,
and reversal of figure and ground. Some
migraine auras are similar to the spiral
illusion inside a spiral illusion reported
by Gardner (1995) in his letter to the
editor on the water fall illusion. In a
conversation with Garder he informed us
that Aristotle reported the waterfall
illusion over two thousand years ago. PET
scans indicate that the projection area
stimulated by the waterfall is the same
area stimulated by the illusion. The only
difference being a slightly higher activity
rate. This suggest to us support for
correlational opponent processing and
explains migraines as chaotic efforts to
reestablish correlational opponent process
balance (Horgan, 1995).
Bottini et al (1995) revealed that cold
water ran in the ear of a brain damaged
patient who had lost the sense of touch
regained the sense temporally. "We show
that in normal subjects touch and
vestibular signals share projections to the
putamen, insula, somatosensory area II,
premotor cortex and supramarginal gyrus. In
our patient a subset of these regions
(right putamen and insula) was paired by
the lesion and was maximally active when
touch and vestibular stimulation were
combined."
To us this suggest a gaussian projection
area with brain damage to the activating
area, the opponent area signals no sense of
touch. When the information is phase
shifted the wavelets activate another part
of the gaussian projection area restoring
temporarily the sense of touch.
Oscillons form in interacting wave
patterns. Oscillons of similar polarity
repell each other and oscillons of reverse
polarity attract each other. These
oscillons are very stable across time. This
is very similar to correlational
opponent-processing (Umbanhowar, 1996).
According to Psaltis and Mok, 1995
holographic retrieval of "associative
memories" can be accomplished in
holographic computer systems by comparing a
store holographic memory with the current
input image. The projection area from the
laser becomes very bright in proportion "to
the degree of similarity between the input
image and each of the stored patterns."
While human memory is NOT holographic, it
can be quasi-holographic or
pseudo-holographic. Holographic memories
are too good to model human memory and
neuro functioning. Similar procedures
however are likely. Physical principles
that are true for physical holographs
should be true for mental quasi-holographs.
All of the above observations taken
together suggest that consciousness is a
gaussian coherence projection resulting in
an attractor state or sense of self. This
is almost identical to the idea that the
self is a gravitational center of
collective experiences causing the
perception of self. If the above is true
this would seriously limit any quantum
effect on consciousness. This does not mean
we should ignore the possibility of quantum
effects.
A simpler model may be adequate. Using
spectrographic procedures light that comes
from a chemical source and is projected
through a prism will create a unique
picture of itself. This consist of light
and dark lines. The sprectrogram is highly
reliable for identifying the elements. If a
basic carrier wave like theta interacts
with a stimulus wavelet the summation rules
may create a mental spectrogram of
interaction which would have the qualities
that we have called quasi- holographic. The
important characterists of gaussian
projections area, gaussian filters for
multiple information, and phase shifting
via distortations of wavelet components
would explain a wide range of phenomenon.
Human thought does not have metaphysical
properties but is grounded in physics,
mathematics, and biology.
Habituation/immunization:
Habituation can be viewed as the product of
correlational opponent-processing. Stimuli
are habituated when neuronal patterns have
been correlated to a lower level of neural
firings. It is likely that stimuli create a
unique stimuli wavelet and that habituation
is the antiwavelet or memory wavelet. This
means that internal mental representations
or wavelets now act as a filter to reduce
or control neural firings for similar
situations in the future. An idea then acts
as if it had immunized the learner to the
stimuli in the environment. The concept of
a filter is supported by the use of a
hologram in optical astronomy (Borra, 1994)
and LaBerge & Brown (1989) research on
attention. Wavelets are now being used to
filter information in electronic circuits.
Neal Stolar et al (1989) suggest that
"unexpected stimuli activate certain
hippocampal and cingulate cortical neurons.
This activity in turn suppresses or
`limits' the firing of limbic thalamic
neurons ... in relation to stimuli
classified as unexpected or expected on the
basis of their incidence or `probability'."
"Habituation induces a specific change in
the processing of... information rather
than a general reduction in responsivity"
(Condor & Weinberger, 1991). Habituation
then means that wavelets, stimuli, schemas,
ideas, models, concepts, beliefs and
theories have been learned and no longer
create a high arousal state. Psychological
immunization to the environment has
occurred and this state allows for the
selective perception of discrepancies to
the stimulus complex. Learned stimuli now
function as background to see new stimuli.
We are built to conserve old ideas and
focused to understand the unusual by the
correlational opponent-processes. In a
meta-analysis of 54 experiments on how
memory is influenced by expectations,
Stangor and McMillan (1992) reported that
incongruent stimuli were more likely to be
remembered than congruent stimuli.
The brain would act as if it was constantly
searching for the least neural pathways to
understand environmental stimuli. According
to Bernard W. Balleine and Ian S. Curthoys
(1991) the "hippocampal activity is
sensitive to event contingencies ...."
Commonly used neural pathways would be
over-fired (habituated) and cause the brain
to use other neural pathways resulting in
the random jumps in intellectual
understandings. These jumps may occur in 40
hertz cycles (Barinaga, 1990). Mild jumping
out of one's comfort zone would be
stimulating. Any significant jump would
require extra effort to use the
correlational opponent-processing systems
to habituate the jump. Significant stimulus
jumps may explain humor or abnormal
behavior like psychopaths, multiple
personalities, drug addiction and thrill
seeking.
Discorrelation:
What happens when habituation, integration,
or paradoxical integration fail?
Discorrelation. Discorrelation may be due
to genetic causes, brain damage, traumatic
experiences, wavelet constructive
interference or wavelet destructive
interference.
The pathology of stuttering may be used to
illustrate the concept. Marek
Roland-Mieszkowski (1994) has developed an
electronic device to prevent discorrelation
which is 90% effective in stopping
stuttering with no training. Stutterers who
sing with a group do not stutter.
Stutterers who become deaf do not stutter.
Ear plugs will help reduce stuttering. It
is likely that wavelet constructive
interference due to feedback loops to the
speech centers, cause chaos in the speech
processing systems. Jamming, blocking, or
modifying feedback will reduce
discorrelation.
According to Eric Wasserman (1995) magnetic
stimulation of CNS/PNS can produce motor
evoked potential in hand muscles that close
to normal nerve stimulation. This occurs
from repetitive magnetic stimulation of the
motor cortex at about 10 Hz. The firing
results from hypersynchrony of firing in
the corticospinal system. The 10 Hertz wave
is likely to be the carrier wave for motor
movement.
Memory:
Memory is any way of storing and
representing information. The brain and
body has many ways of doing this. In the
past it was suggested that memory is best
understood as changes in RNA molecules in
nerve cells due to learning. This idea does
not generate much interest or support
today. We would suggest if the idea returns
that what is important would be the
location and interconnection of RNA
molecules. It should be clear that memory
is a complex issue and many approaches are
giving us true information but the
information has not been linked together in
a way that allow us to understand.
While not the first, the research by
Richard Tsien of Stanford and Charles
Stevens (1990) of the Salk Institute shows
that nerve cells create a long-term
potentiation of a change in the probability
of firing or inhibition when stimuli are
associated with the firing of two other
nerve cells. According to Tsien and
Stevens, glutamate may be the main
neurotransmitter substance responsible for
this change resulting in associative
learning. Glutamate is released in the
receptor neuron when stimuli are
pair-bonded or connected with each other
from the firing of two other nerve cells.
The probability of firing or inhibition of
firing of a nerve cell ranges from 0 to 1.
In other words, nerve cells have a
permanent change in response to
environmental stimulation. Since learning
would require thousands of nerve cells
working together in their firing or
inhibition patterns, one may view these
patterns as learned correlational
relationships between stimuli. The actual
storing of the eigenfunction equivalence or
mathematical relationship is expressed as a
structural change relative to other nerve
cells and a change in the probability of
firing. One may view these structural
changes as the changes of chemicals on
photographic film. We would suggest that
they are quasi-holograms of memory.
Computers have been programmed to create
holograms, of any visual rotation, from a
limited set of information (Peterson, 1992)
. The brain is probably using similar
procedures in creating quasi-holographic
engram wavelets. COP theory strongly
suggests that a mechanism must be present
to force some nerve cells to die or pull
back neural connections to store wavelets.
If this is true then chemicals that kill
nerve cells may increase learning. It is
likely that nerves are instructed to grow
to preserve or repair a learned
association. These tendencies could result
in diseases.
Correlations are the encodings of
associations and cooperativity between
neurons. A neural mechanism for
opponent-processing is suggested by Robert
A. Zalutsky and Roger A. Nicoll's (1990)
work on associational-commissural fibers
and mossy fibers of dentate granule cells.
"Much of the interest in LTP (long-term
potentiation) has been fueled by its
tantalizing phenomenological similarity to
memory. ... in assoc-com pathway the CA3
pyramidal cell integrates its various
inputs and controls the potentiation of
active inputs, in mossy fiber LTP the
presynaptic dentate granule cell would make
the analogous computation, transform it
into spiking frequency, and thus control
the occurrence of LTP." These two types of
cells use significantly different
procedures for creating long-term
potentiation. These differences may be
opponent-processing. Opponent-processing
may be due to the difference in neural
firings that occur from the
interhemispheric competition and
specialization of functions (Kennison &
McFarland, 1989).
Jean-Pierre Changeux (1993) research on the
firing patterns at the synapse reveals a
three-phase change in probability of
firing. This suggests that
opponent-processes started in nerve cells
and later developed into global
opponent-processing. Synapse exists in
three states, the closed or resting state,
the closed or desensitized state, and the
open or active state. Neurotransmitter
receptors by altering their states can
change the probability of
neurotransmission. Changeux believes this
response could participate in learning.
Opponent- processing may require three
different nerve mechanisms. According to
Holloway (1992) the three main or elite
neurotransmitters are ATP, acetylcholine,
and glutamate. Long-term potentiation may
be due to nitric oxide, arachidonic acid,
and carbon monoxide.
The learner must be viewed as an active
processor of information and trying to
integrate his current experience with his
old experiences (Mayer, 1992). The working
memory's goal is to correlate all data.
Data that is correlated is strengthened.
Data that has low correlations is slowly
erased. The hypermnesia and reminiscence
phenomenon problem raised by Payne (1987)
could be explained as a consolidation of
wavelets. Correlations may be positive or
negative. The brain may work more
effectively with positive correlations. For
example, children have difficulty with lies
not being real, pretendingnot being real,
movies not being real, and the concept of
not or negation. Tell a child not to do
something and they will often do what you
told them not to do. Even college students
often miss questions on tests with the word
NOT in them. This should mean that
repression and undoing are active neural
processes, not passive processes. For
further readings on the changed perception
of the importance of working memory the
reader is referred to Alan Baddeley's
(1992) article on Working Memory.
According to Nestor A. Schmajuk and James
J. Dicarlo (1991) "Sensory representations
compete among themselves for a
limited-capacity short- term memory (STM)
that is reflected in a long-term memory
storage. The STM regulation hypothesis,
which proposes that the hippocampus
controls incentive motivation,
self-excitation, and competition among
sensory representations thereby regulating
the contents of a limited capacity STM."
The ability to recognize slight changes in
the stimulus complex is influenced by our
attention. We are limited in how many
stimuli we can respond to at any one time.
PET scans demonstrate that cognitive
control of visual processing occurs
(Corbetta , et al., 1990). Focusing
attention is important for the
effectiveness of the working memory or
mediator. It is our theories, schemas and
ideas that focus our attention. The neural
pathways are dependent on biological
wiring, the hard wiring from experience,
and the disconnection and random growth of
neural connections from new learning
experiences and neural decay.
Horgan (1993) has reported that all areas
of brain functioning seem to be highly
specialized with fragmentation in
intellectual task and experience. This
fragmentation has led to the realization
that there must be a supreme integrator.
The thalamus is suggested as the supreme
integrator from the analysis of the
neuropathological findings in the brain of
Karen Ann Quinlan (Kinney & etc, 1994).
Because of the natural way that wavelets
would interact higher order principle may
be inferred. COP theory would suggest that
neural networks act as if they are
organized in a triad system as a minimum by
having an advocate, a protagonist, and a
mediator; or white, black, and gray; or on,
off, and on. The last on functions as a
gatekeeper or integrator. The constant
dialogue between these systems creates new
knowledge and balance. These neural
networks would be specialized organizations
of knowledge acting as brokers of
information and gate keepers. New stimuli
would be analyzed by the mathematics of
interacting wavelets. The question then
becomes can the new experience be explained
by the rotation, compression, or change of
the concept or wavelet. If the new stimulus
fits the predictions of the memory wavelet
it is not added to the memory wavelet. If
the information is slightly off the average
the information is added to the gaussian
memory wavelet. If the information is
significantly different it is summed under
a new memory wavelet as an exception to the
rule. Neural devices would be required to
bring together the elements or data
required to generate a new idea. Ideas are
schemas created by correlations. We act as
if these ideas are real. Psychologist
Daniel T. Gilbert of the University of
Texas states that "Much recent research
converges on a single point people are
credulous creatures who find it very easy
to believe and very difficult to doubt ....
Inquiring minds not only want to know; they
also tend to believe, at least initially,
what they read and hear" (Bower, 1991).
Superstitious behavior illustrates the
concept of the realness of ideas. It is the
usefulness (goodness-of-fit) or lack of
usefulness of ideas that creates tension
with other ideas that generate intellectual
growth and emotional conflict.
COP theory suggests that there are no
memories that have not been reworked. It
also suggests that any stimulation of the
brain and the apparent memories created by
that stimulation must be made consistent
with previous experiences. Therefore, the
memories stimulated may be rebuilt memories
instead of actual memories or predicted
estimates of the future. Transfer is the
correlational connection of schemas to new
situations. Schemas may cross-connect from
the reworking of old memories and
connections. Habituation of old firings is
the key reason for new random firings
created by increased sensitization to new
random stimuli that are discrepant to old
stimuli.
Representations, copies or models:
One may visually recognize a multiple
regression correlational relationship as a
star formed by drawing an individual
correlation as a spoke of a star. Such
stars are easily recognized by untrained
individuals as unique. The brain is
probably using a similar method since three
dimensional firing associations have been
recorded with PET scans or positron
emission tomography (Bower, 1990).
It has been reported in the literature that
an attractive face is really a face that is
mathematically determined to be average by
a computer (Langlois & Roggmann, 1990).
This means that for all face stimuli that
we are exposed to we constantly compare the
new face to a mathematic model of that
average. If the new face is highly
correlated to our mental model or mental
copy we respond to it in a positive way and
state that the face is pleasing. COP theory
would say that all schemas, ideas, models,
beliefs or theories are mathematically
determined to be average and expressed as a
gaussian memory wavelet by our experiences.
Just as a model airplane is made of parts
our mental models or schemata are made up
of mental parts. These parts are correlated
to our mental models, mental copies, or
representations and can be used to make
other models. Models can be grouped
together to make more complex models or
theories. All models and parts are
independent and connected at the same time.
Remember it is possible to write complex
computer programs with only 255 numbers in
a chip. The numbers are the parts that can
be assembled into models of reality. People
with learning difficulties may be missing
key parts or processes for building the
models necessary for the learning process.
Not all parts are necessary to recognize a
model plane as a plane, but there are
critical parts that are necessary.
Habituation of a stimulus complex followed
by the presentation of a new stimulus (key
part) may help to establish the elements
required for learning. The brain is
structured to compare new stimuli with old
schemas. If the stimuli is discrepant we
focus our attention and create a new
schema.
It is our conceptualization of events that
allows us to observe new relationships not
previously apparent. The reader is directed
to McCloskey's (1983) concept of mental
models for supporting evidence. COP theory
would suggest that humans are theoretical.
Each person's theories are their
perceptions or interpretations of reality.
It would be difficult to impossible to take
head-on another's theory. A new theory must
be discovered slowly to overcome a strong
counter theory unless the new theory
matches in with one's old theories.
Presenting the advantages and disadvantages
of each theory would help integrate both
and create a relaxed synthesis.
Learning/Cognition:
A new activity requires a new neuronal
environment. Strong resistance should be
observed to new experiences. Resistance
could be experienced as anxiety, fear,
anger and paradoxically excitement
according to the opponent-processing theory
of emotion. The speed of
opponent-processing or diffusion of ideas
should help determine whether new stimuli
are anxiety evoking or exciting. The faster
the response time for habituation, the more
intelligent the person will be. We are
biologically wired to be anxious to
significant changes in the stimulus
complex. If a person is intelligent or
worldly they can habituate to a new
situation faster. This changes what should
have been anxiety provoking to an exciting
stimulus, interesting stimulus, or even a
boring stimulus. If large amounts of
information and experience have been
habituated, a person would then be alert to
small changes in the stimulus complex.
Prior knowledge then alerts a person to new
knowledge and speeds up its acquisition.
Almost anyone could become superior in an
area of knowledge that they are actively
trying to understand and master.
An important goal of learning is the
assimilation and accommodation of new
stimuli with organized correlational schema
formed by our individual experiences.
Theories that put large quantities of
empirical data into a nice package would be
neurologically energy efficient. Low energy
usage should cause the release of pleasure
chemicals or neurotransmitters, possibly
carbon monoxide, to lock in the memory and
cause one to feel pleased. This suggests
that we have a comfort zone for looking for
new empirical experiences to confirm our
theories. The normal zone or comfort zone
of individuals would vary according to
their biological makeup and correlated
experiences. The range of variability in
brain wave fluctuations would influence
data storage and retrieval. Sensitivity or
responsiveness to stimuli would be
biologically and experientially vectored.
The characteristic of the person's
biological thermostat would define the
comfort zone. Individual difference in
thermostats are illustrated by novelty
preference, shyness phenomenon and stimulus
seeking personalities.
Meaning of material has long been
recognized as important to and enhancing
learning (Reed, 1938). COP theory would
stress discrepancies and the meaning of
information. Meaning would occur as a
process of reworking of old memories.
Histories (all data or experiences from the
past) and the geschichte (theories or ideas
created by clustered data) are mutually
equal, interacting, and important. Memories
would be constantly changed to make sense
of one's current situation. Parents may
report one child having musical ability
when both of their children are musically
inclined. The parent's theory that one is
musically inclined and the other is
athletic causes the selective reworking of
memories and perceptions to adjust the data
for consistency. COP theory would use the
concept of perceptual set to support the
working of correlational
opponent-processing. The research on the
events of wording regarding a car accident
supports this position. The word crash
generates higher estimated speeds when
compared to the words fender bender (Loftus
& Palmer, 1974).
New learning is dependent on prior learning
and gaussian correlations with random like
properties. New learning requires
development time, inventive cognitive
dialogue, integration, or
opponent-processing. Cognitive behavior
follows the pathway of stimulus, schema
review of stimulus, novelty, habituation,
and schema production and consolidation.
Sensations and Perceptions:
Paradoxical integration is illustrated with
the Thunberg thermal grill illusion. Using
alternating tubes of warm and cold water to
generate contradictory stimulation
individuals report intense pain. Craig and
Bushnell (1994) suggest that the
integration in the thalamic region of the
brain best explains this illusion. The
integration result from the joining of two
unmasked simple models of central
disinhibition. COP theory suggests that the
firing of individual nerve cells would
create a unique wave function for a
particular sensory system and experience.
These sensory systems then create waves or
wavelets. A wave generator for warm and a
wave generator for cold with increasing
signals up to a maximum signal strength. In
the integrative systems of the brain these
wavelets would result in producing an
integrative opponent-processing wavelet.
This wavelet created by interaction and
multiple correlations of a rotational
nature results in the perception of pain.
Paradoxical integration is illustrated with
taste. By cooling the tongue with ice,
sweets will taste less sweet (Frankmann &
Green, 1988). The chemical explanation is
that sweets when cold cause the nerve cells
to fire at a slower rate resulting in
perceived less sweet taste. We would
suggest correlational opponent-processing
may be a better explanation.
Saccharin, an artificial sweetener, tastes
both sweet and bitter. The psychological
report of people vary on the taste of
saccharin. Caffeine is a bitter tasting
stimulant. After exposure to caffeine, the
saccharin taste is increased for both sweet
and bitter. Yet, caffeine has no effect on
sweets and their taste (Schiffman, Diaz, &
Beeker, 1986). This suggest an
opponent-processing system of sweet- bitter
and paradoxical integration. Bartoshuk
(1993) research suggest
opponent-processing. When one side of the
tongue has been paralyzed sweets will taste
sweeter to the other side. Bartoshuk (1994)
reported that miracle berries will cause
acids to taste both sweet and sour. The
explanation was believed to be peripheral.
The glycoprotein on the miraculin molecule
was believed to directly stimulate sweet
receptors. Now that a central explanation
has been proposed by correlational
opponent-processing Bartoshuk reported that
she really liked the possible explanation.
Using a gestalt pattern and correlational
opponent process the miraculin which is
practically tasteless might produce neural
wavelet patterns what are unnoticed in the
brain. This would produce opponent memory
reverberating wavelets. When the stimulus
of acid (vinegar) is added to the miraculin
wavelet it causes a frequency modulation
that is read as very sweet and sour. This
would be like phi phenomenon and the
gestalt of perception.
The system of olfaction has been difficult
to study. Paradoxical integration is
illustrated through "olfactory
compensation" first reported by
Zwaardemaker in 1900 in which two odors
will cancel each other out and block
perception (Richardson & Zucco, 1989).
According to Gutin, Oliwenstein, and Mestel
(1993), world wide there are only 200
serious investigators pursing the auditory
system. There work has significant impact
on the thousands of others who study
psychological, neurological, and
physiological aspects of the auditory
system. The hearing nerve system consist of
about 16,000 hair cells and their cilia in
four parallel rows, one inner and three
outer rows. (Note: four moments suffice to
create a Pearson system (Cacioppo &
Dorfman, 1987)). Each hair cell is
connected to about 100 bristles or
stereocilia. The hair cells are arranged in
a row according to height. Strand like
structures called tip links join each
stereocilium to its tallest neighbor. This
linkage allows for nerve stimulation only
in the direction of front or back. This
then allows for the correlational encoding
of nerve stimulation. The opponent process
we believe comes from the nerve cells
coming from the brain to the auditory
nerves. According to Gutin et al. (1993)
the number of connections coming from the
brain to the auditory nerves is
significantly higher than the auditory
nerves going to the brain. According to
Drennan (1995) there are ~1,800 efferent
connections from the brain to the cochlea
and there are over 30,000 afferent nerves
from the cochlea to the brain (temporal
lobe). This contradicts Gutin et al. (1993)
report.
In addition according to Drennan (1995)
there are four rows of hair cells, three
inner and one outer. The hair cells provide
the base for the cilia. There are ~12,000
outer hair cells in each row. A row would
be make up of 100-150 stereocilia in 6 or 7
rows of sterocilia shaped in a W or V
pattern. There are ~3,500 inner hair cells
which each have 40-60 cilia shaped in a U
pattern in 2 or 4 rows. Longer cilia are
near the base of the U, V, or W and the
shorter cilia are near the inside. Longer
cilia are in the apical turn of the basilar
membrane and the shorter cilia are in the
basal turn. The cells fire only when pulled
in one direction. Thusly, the cilia act as
a rectifier only transmitting on the
positive side of the acoustic wave.
According to John M. Price (1994) the
nervous system works both ways. This
ultimately results in nerve cells
responding to 2,000 Hz in the right ear
eventually affecting the firings of the
2,000 Hz portion of the opposite cochlea.
Tinnitus a ringing in the ear can actually
produce sound (otoacoustic emissions) that
others can hear also.
Since sound is a wave function, wavelet
theory seems to be a natural for explaining
sound analysis. Stimuli wavelets are
produced by sound. The opponent-process
produces wavelets to control and integrate
new stimuli wavelets produced by the
environment. Since the auditory system may
be the simplest example of correlational
opponent process, systematic study of the
auditory system may suggest other research
avenues and strategies for other sensory
systems.
The opponent-process theory of color vision
(Beck, Hope, & Rosenfeld, 1983; Leibovic,
1990) suggests that color perception is due
to three types of cone nerve cells that
send information to bipolar nerve cells
resulting in seeing a particular color. A
nerve would have two states, on for a color
and off for another color, for example;
nerves for blue/yellow, red/green and
white/black (rod). This information when
jointly presented to bipolar cells from
other cones would produce all the colors
that we see. This means that red light
turns on one type of cone and inhibits
another type of cone from firing. This
opponent- process then is interpreted to
mean that the stimulus was red. Purple is
made up of red and blue. Cones for red and
cones for blue are turn on or inhibited.
The opponent-process then is interpreted to
mean the color purple. It is likely that
some cones are pure ON types for red, blue,
and green stimulation. This would help the
opponent-process of interpreting the
stimulus.
Paradoxical integration is observed with
color constancy. A color is maintained even
under different lighting conditions if not
to extreme. The visual principles of
closure, figure and ground, similarity,
simplicity, and whole being greater than
its parts also illustrate paradoxical
integration. Optical illusions illustrate
paradoxical integration. Examples are
reversal of figure and ground, negative
after image, Muller-Lyer illusion, visual
after effects, and phiphenomenon. Problems
raised by Blake (1989) regarding binocular
rivalry like suppression having no retarded
effect on the growth of the threshold
elevation aftereffect, the spatial
frequency shift aftereffect, the tilt
aftereffect, and motion aftereffect suggest
the strength of wavelets.
Paradoxical integration is observed in
binocular depth reversals. According to
Deutsch and Ramachandran (1990) when
pictures are inverted in a stereoscope
people report that the perceived depth
reverses. This is not always true since
faces seem to be resistant to reversals. We
should see a hollow face but instead we see
a normal face. While this phenomenon can be
reduced by changing texture clues and
binocular disparity clues, the position of
COP theory is a cognitive interpretation.
The wavelets or schemas for faces are used
to generalize the current stimulus of an
"inverted face" to a normal face. However,
when sufficient information is supplied to
counteract the prediction from the wavelet,
reversal occurs. Reversals may support the
position that for every schema or wavelet
there has to be an opposite schema or
wavelet. We are hopeful this may be a
useful way to test COP theory. Reversed
responses were reported by Jin (1992) as a
revision of the law of initial value. The
law of initial value would state that the
initial strength of a stimulus would
determine its strength and resistance to
change to a memory in the future. This
implies a baseline rate for future
comparisons. However, Jin states that the
law of initial value should be revised. The
revision is that the higher the initial
value of a stimulus the greater the
likelihood that a reversed response would
be observed. This reversal supports in our
opinion reverse wavelets.
Very-large-scale integration (VLSI)
electronic circuits for computer vision
algorithms have been developed with the
strategy for minimizing the energy or
functional cost (Harris, Koch, & Luo,
1990). This use of a priori constraints,
stochastic algorithms , and probability
distributions for detecting discontinuities
for computer vision systems has led to
successes for the electronic industry.
These same a priori constraints of
minimizing the usage of neuroenergy and the
use of probability distributions from
wavelets when forming neural firing
patterns have lead to human beings.
Movement:
Bullock & Glossberg (1988) research on
movement revealed that "Opponent
interactions regulate ... agonist and
antoganist muscle groups. This system
generated synchronous movements across
synergetic muscles by automatically
compensating for the different total
contractions that each muscle group must
undergo." This suggests the use of movement
wavelets to predict and correct the
movement systems before it is possible to
do so.
Personality:
The rational-emotive theory of emotions
(Ellis, 1962) uses antecedent events.
Beliefs about these events lead to
consequences. The COP theory would say the
antecedent events are stimuli, the beliefs
are the opponent-processing of
correlational stimuli, and the consequences
are the educated guesses, trends, and
vector analysis translated into action. The
opponent-process is really one of
active-reactive neural networks. Beliefs
are neural arrangements created by previous
choices and negotiations with other neural
networks. Beliefs are local conditions that
represent investment decisions created by
past conflicts and political processes
occurring at a neural level. Beliefs are
entrenched integrated neural
compatibilities, strategies,
configurations, frames of reference, styles
of utilization, points of view, and
momentum of one's past. Cognitive data has
extremely strong emotive power. This is
illustrated with the concepts of musts and
shoulds in Ellis' theory. Cognitive data is
an original construction of people.
People's shoulds become strong desires,
goals and necessities that for them may be
non-negotiable. The consequence of belief
is the result of multiple correlational
analysis, voting of networks, or conflict
between sponsor-regulator neurons that
vector us to a course of action. The
consequences lead to cognitive dissonance
or tension that must be reduced by
correlational opponent-processing and
creation of new beliefs to stabilize or
adapt the neural firing patterns.
The incorporation of an erroneous belief
into one's schema is paradoxical
integration. In order to accept tension
arousing stimuliand achieve homeostasis
between existing memories we may fit
erroneous beliefs into our cognitive schema
by distorting information. Distortions
cause conscious or unconscious tensions
that may result in coping strategies in the
form of maladaptive behaviors or faulty
cognitions. These frequently lead to
self-defeating behavior patterns.
Psychopathology can be understood as a
paradoxical integration. Some examples may
be learned helplessness, paranoia, multiple
personalities,dependence, defense
mechanisms, aggressiveness, classical
conditioning, and autoimmune diseases. A
belief is dangerous in that it may limit
our ability to see contradictory
information. We may feel compelled to force
others into our beliefs. Their acceptance
of our viewpoints allows us to relax our
vigilance that we may be wrong or that some
other opinion may be correct. A belief that
integrates most experiences may ultimately
win out because it is more energy
efficient. That is why a false belief is a
paradoxical integration. The tension is not
at its lowest level, causing a search for
possible new integrations. Approaching
others for psychotherapy is like saying our
paradoxical integrations are not working
and we want to reduce our psychological
tension.
The old saying that people take the easiest
way out for themselves is supported by COP
theory. What is easiest is determined by
the biological and experiential make up of
an individual. Guastello's (1984) use of
catastrophe theory to explain the opponent-
process of drug addiction and work
performance illustrates that the easy way
out is psychological and can be vectored in
unexpected outcomes. Chaos and feedback are
useful in understanding how the brain
functions.
COP theory suggests that memories are state
dependent. Each person is constantly a
different person. Brain chemistry and
neuron firings vary over time. Data is
stored for the actual neuronal environment
at the time it was experienced. Data
retrieval is dependent on the neuronal
environment. It would be difficult to
impossible to recall information that is
stored in significantly different neuronal
environments. Therefore, a person will
remember happy things when they are happy
and sad things when they are sad (Johnson &
Magaro, 1987). When you are speaking
Spanish you are a Spanish person and when
you are speaking English you are an English
person (Psychology Today, 1987). Different
personalities for each language within the
same person may be interpreted to support
COP theory.
Genetic differences and interaction with
the environment would create different
cognitive and emotive styles, strategies
and reactions to the environment. Lee
(1977) proposed using the metaphor of
colors to describe and understand the
various typologies of love. Using a Q
sorttest of 1,500 card and factor analysis
the research supported the theory. The
concept of a temperament thermostat
represented by a color band continuum may
be useful for illustrating the COP
functions of personality. Red would be
representative of anger or a hyper-arousal
state; pink would represent irritation,
discomfort or moderate excitation; green
would represent a comfort zone, contentment
or mild excitation and grey would represent
hypo-arousal, boredom or depression. The
width and normal position of each color
band would vary due to biology and
experience. Recovery time to the green band
also would be dependent on biology and
experience. These color bands represent a
continuum of gradually intensifying shades
within each color band.
Abnormal personalities could be due, in
part, to emotional thermostats that are set
at points off center or to portions of
color band that are abnormally large or
small. A well-adjusted person would have a
well proportioned, centered emotional
thermostat.
The COP theory is really an immune theory
of learning where the goal is to achieve
balance or homeostasis to environmental
stimuli. Major stimulus changes or
discrepancies in the stimulus complex would
represent danger and require immediate
immune responses. Phobias could be
eliminated with flooding to activate the
immune functions of COP theory. Systematic
desensitization could do the same thing at
a slower rate. Any procedure that allows
the brain to control or explain things to
itself, and thereby reduce tension, should
help.
Emotion:
Peter J. Lang et al (1990) research
findings suggest support for COP theory.
Their findings are that "Emotions are
organized biphasically, as appetitive or
aversive (defensive). Reflexes with the
same valence as an ongoing emotional state
are augmented; mismatched reflexes are
inhibited."
The opponent-process theory of motivation
(Solomon & Corbit, 1974) demonstrates
paradoxical integration. The goal is to
maintain equilibrium in emotion and
motivation. Events force us out of our
balance. The body tries to force us back to
the balance by releasing opposing
chemicals. Events change and the chemicals
that were released are still in the blood
stream. This causes an opposite emotional
effect. For example if you are about to
jump out of an airplane strong fear and
anxiety are aroused. The body does not want
you to be afraid or nervous so it releases
pleasure chemicals at high levels to try to
balance the negative emotions. Suddenly the
parachute opens and you are safe. The
pleasure chemicals are still in your blood
stream so they cause you to experience a
strong positive feeling like having a shot
of heroin. These opponent-processes explain
addictive behaviors.
The phenomenon of drug addiction, drug
withdrawal, and drug tolerance fits the
opponent-processing theory well. The
correlational aspect is illustrated with
the research on drug tolerance being
connected with the environment (Poulos &
Cappell, 1991) . A low drug dose when
connected to a change in the environment
can result in a new high or even death.
Evolution:
Houde and Ender (1990) research on male
color patterns and female mating preference
may be interpreted to support COP theory.
Male guppies (Poecilia reticulata) vary in
number and size of orange dots. Females use
the orange dots to create a schema or
wavelet for sex recognition. A wavelet is a
gaussian average. Females prefer males who
have average or above average dots. Orange
dots make the males easy to see for
predators so this results in an
opponent-process of reducing the number of
orange dot fish that survive. Sexual
preference from wavelet modulations keeps
the dots higher. Reproductive success and
survival to have offsprings is the driving
force of evolution. Any genetic trait or
behavior that increases reproductive
success and survival of offsprings will be
selected into the gene pool for a species.
Behavior is a quicker way to adapt to the
environment than changing the gene code to
adapt. Behavior often creates significant
advantages by exploiting new ecological
niches. Through natural selection the
biology of the organism further adapts the
offspring to use these behaviors more
effectively. Evolution works on the
available gene codes and the successes of
the past. Many of the biological systems
are redundant and modifications of previous
successes. Homeostasis is a major
adaptation. We drink water when we are
thirsty. We eat when we are hungry. Our sex
drive, curiosity and aggression results in
offsprings. Learning is a faster way to
adapt to the environment than biology.
Knowledge can be transferred by experience
and observation to offsprings thereby
giving them a selective advantage. COP
theory reflects evolution. Habituation is
homeostasis to the stimulus environment.
Homeostasis conserves energy. A wavelet is
a statement of balance and memory of
experiences that is energy efficient. The
brain will configure itself to almost any
type of environment thereby enhancing
survival. No real new system is being used
in opponent-process since it describes a
large range of behaviors and biological
systems. This means that learning is simply
a modification of basic biological
processes. Opponent-process allows for
rapid adaptation to complex biological
requirements. Learning is an extension of
this adaptation. Chaos, order, and
catastrophe processes when applied to
learning have created new and powerful
successes. We are the heirs in this long
chain of successes and events.
COP theory would suggest that some birds
that fly together should have correlated
wing beats. A lot of group behavior in
animals that are synchronized illustrates
correlational opponent-processing. The
vacillation phenomenon in
approach-avoidance problems illustrates
correlational opponent-processing.
COP theory would accept that animals can
think, know, and be aware through the
mental models or mental copies that they
generate from their experiences of the
environment. The difference between animals
and humans is not that extreme, both are
creating and using symbolic representations
of reality. We believe that animals should
be given the respect, appreciation, and
fair treatment they deserve since we now
must view them as being more human.
Brain Damage:
Under normal conditions it is accepted that
mature neurons do not divide. Correlational
opponent-processing demands that neurons
not divide or connect up randomly.
Therefore this natural system restricts
repair through cell division and connection
in the central nervous system.
The correlational encoding of memories
creates a quasi-holographic template. A
laser produced hologram on a holographic
35mm. slide can be destroyed with scissors
yet a laser beam will still retrieve all
the stored information. Human
quasi-holographic memories would force the
brain to grow new nerve connections (not
cell division) after brain damage that
would allow the old correlational memories
to be expressed or recovered. This means
that the brain should be very elastic and
capable of good recovery from tremendous
damage. Nerve growth factor hormone and
epidermal growth factor hormone may allow
for rapid reconnections and rebuilding of
neural pathways for old correlated
memories. The damaged areas currently are
not 100% repaired because cell division is
blocked.
Computer model:
If the model is correct then it might give
insight into the building of a computer
that could duplicate the human mind. A chip
to do this would be similar to a water
pressure value that must be equal on both
sides to allow both sides of the feed lines
(dendrites) to release water from the main
line (axon). A more complete model may
include field effect transistors connected
to charge coupling devices. By analogy,
data output from a VCR camera may be
similar to data output from the mind. The
changes on the VCR tape may be thought of
as blocks or packets of information that
can be recovered to see the recorded
images. The computer model would require
the constant effort to compress the data
stored on tape to smaller and smaller sets
of equations that could be used to recover
all of the meaningful information that has
been encoded. Since the brain is a
confederacy of many minds, these minds are
negotiating issues, like a Delphi group, in
order to reach consensus or homeostasis.
Someday it may be possible to transfer
completely a person's memories to a
computer. As biological existence ends as a
possibility mankind may continue as
memories in a super computer. Such memories
may be transferable as a potential at some
future time to others.
Conclusion:
Many systems in science behave as
correlational opponent-processes. This
statement may be saying little or it could
vector our experimentation. Only time will
tell if it has any long range value, since
the history of science is one of
correlational opponent-processing or
thesis, antithesis and synthesis.
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Acknowledgments
The following individuals are recognized
for their assistance, advice, time, and
encouragement.
Albert Ellis, Stephen Guastello, Nils
Hovik, Peter Karch, Robi Polikar, Margaret
McMenamin, Betty Yawney, Holly Morris,
Wayne Nelson, Ralph Sell, Richard
Shollenberger, Althea Hatcher, Misha
Beierlein, Heinz Beck, Oliver Sparrow, Glen
Appleby, Andrea Chen, Doug Craigen, Harry
R. Erwin, Leszek Balla, Christian Holscher,
Sharon Allen, Marianne Ciotti
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